Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf 118
Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương
With a Foreword by
Venerable Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero
HƯƠNG SEN Publishing
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***
Contents
Foreword 17
Introduction 21
Chapter 1 - The Country Of Ceylon 30
1.1. THE ISLAND OF CEYLON (SRI LANKA) 30
1.2. COLOMBO, THE CAPITAL CITY OF SRI LANKA 36
Chapter 2 - Buddhism in Sri Lanka 38
2.1. THE BUDDHA’S THREE VISITS TO CEYLON 38
2.2. PRINCE VIJAYA: THE FIRST KING OF CEYLON 40
2.3. VENERABLE MAHĀ MAHINDA THERO: FIRST DHAMMA TEACHER IN CEYLON 43
2.4. VENERABLE BHIKKHUNĪ SANGHAMITTĀ THERĪ ESTABLISHES THE BHIKKHUNĪ ORDER 48
2.5. BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA 49
2.6. THE MODERN BUDDHIST REVIVAL 53
2.7. THE INTERNATIONAL BUDDHIST FLAG 57
2.8. SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM TODAY 59
Chapter 3 - The Ancient Buddhist Capitals
of Anurādhapura and Polonnaruwa 62
3.1. SACRED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF ANURĀDHAPURA 62
3.1.1. Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi Tree, Anurādhapura
(Third Century BCE) 64
3.1.2. Capital of Anurādhapura 69
3.1.3. Ancient Capital of Anurādhapura 73
3.1.4. The Sacred Bodhi Tree (Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi) 76
3.1.5. Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum 78
3.1.6. Abhayagiri Dagoba 79
3.1.7. Isurumuniya Rock Temple 81
3.1.8. Abhayagiriya Archaeological Museum 82
3.1.9. Brazen Palace Monastery (Lovamahapaya) 83
3.1.10. Mirisawetiya Dagoba (Stūpa) 84
3.1.11. Royal Grand Stūpa of Anurādhapura 85
3.1.12. Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa 86
3.1.13. Jētavanārāmaya Stūpa 90
3.1.14. Thuparama Stūpa 91
3.1.15. Aukana Buddha Statue 93
3.1.16. Mihintale Mountain (Hill of Mahinda) 94
3.1.17. Alms Hall and Kitchen 95
3.1.18. Sandakada Pahana (Moonstone) of Anurādhapura 97
3.1.19. Eth Pokuna (Elephant Pond) 98
3.1.20. Kuttam Pokuna (Twin Ponds) 99
3.1.21. Samadhi Buddha Statue (Meditation Buddha) 100
3.1.22. Lankārāmaya Stūpa (Sīlasobha Khandaka Cetiya) 101
3.1.23. Vessagiri Hermitage Caves 103
3.1.24. Mayura Pirivena Monastery 104
3.1.25. Sārānanda Pirivena Monastery 105
3.1.26. Mirisavetiya Stūpa 106
3.1.27. Issarasamanārāma Monastery (Isurumuniya) 107
3.1.28. Ratna Prasāda Lecture Hall 108
3.1.29. Visitor Information for Anurādhapura 109
3.2. SACRED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
OF POLONNARUWA 110
3.2.1. Ancient Capital of Polonnaruwa 110
3.2.2. Sacred Monuments of Polonnaruwa 111
3.2.3. Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu 113
3.2.4. Royal Audience Hall of King Parakramabahu 115
3.2.5. Parakrama Samudra Reservoir 116
3.2.6. Hindu Shiva Devale No. 1 118
3.2.7. Thuparama Stūpa 119
3.2.8. Vatadage Circular Relic House 120
3.2.9. Nissanka Lata Mandapaya Meditation Hall 122
3.2.10. Satmahāl Prasāda Seven-Story Tower 124
3.2.11. Gal Potha (Stone Book) of King Nissanka Malla 126
3.2.12. Hatadage Stūpa 128
3.2.13. Gal Vihāra Rock Temple 129
3.2.14. Pabalu Vihāra Stūpa 131
3.2.15. Hindu Shiva Devale No. 2 132
3.2.16. Rankot Vihāra Grand Stūpa: Golden Pinnacle Relic 132
3.2.17. Kiri Vihāra White Stūpa 133
3.2.18. Lankātilaka Buddha Statue 134
3.2.19. Lankātilaka Image House 135
3.2.20. Demala Mahā Seya: Tamil Dagoba 135
3.2.21. Nelum Pokuna: Lotus Pond 136
3.2.22. Tivanka Buddha Image House 137
3.2.23. Ancient Pothgul Vihāra Library 138
3.2.24. Medirigiriya Vatadage Circular Relic House 139
3.2.25. Alahana Parivena Hospital 141
3.2.26. Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum 142
3.2.27. Visitor Information for Polonnaruwa 143
Chapter 4 - Sacred Buddhist Rock Mountains 146
4.1. MIHINTALE MOUNTAIN: BIRTHPLACE OF SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM AND SITE
OF THE FIRST THERAVĀDA MISSION FROM INDIA 146
4.1.1. Pilgrimage Features of Mihintale 149
4.1.2. Minhintale Peak 149
4.1.3. Stone Steps of Mihintale Hill 151
4.1.4. Kantaka Chetiya Stūpa 152
4.1.5. Ambasthala Dagoba (Sila Cetiya) 153
4.1.6. Mahinda Guhāva Cave (Cave of Arahant Mahinda) 155
4.1.7. Alms Hall 156
4.1.8. Vejja Sālā Hospital 160
4.1.9. Kāludiya Pokuna Reservoir
(Sylvan Pond of Black Water) 161
4.1.10. Assembly Hall 162
4.1.11. Meditation Hall (Sannipata Sālā ) 162
4.1.12. Nāga Pokuna (Dragon Pond) 163
4.1.13. Visitor Information for Mihintale 164
4.2. SIGIRIYA LION ROCK AND THE ANCIENT CITY OF SIGIRIYA 166
4.2.1. Pilgrimage Features of Sigiriya Lion Rock 169
4.2.2. Sigiriya Lion Fortress (Sinhāgiri) 169
4.2.3. The 12,290 Stone Steps 170
4.2.4. Royal Water Gardens 171
4.2.5. Caves on the Mountainside 173
4.2.6. Rock Graffiti and Frescoes 174
4.2.7. Mahāyāna Beliefs and Avalokiteśvara Worship on Sigiriya Lion Rock 176
4.3. THE BUDDHA’S SACRED FOOTPRINT
ON SRI PADA MOUNTAIN (ADAM’S PEAK) 179
4.3.1. Pilgrimage Features of Sri Pada 184
4.3.2. Electric Lighting along the Assent to Sri Pada 184
4.3.3. Sama Chetiya Temple 186
4.3.4. Bhagava Cave 186
4.3.5. Sacred Footprint of the Buddha on Sri Pada 187
4.3.6. Sunrise and View from the Sri Pada Summit 188
4.3.7. Ancient Iron Chains along the Stone Steps at Sri Pada 189
4.3.8. Visitor Information for Sri Pada 189
4.4. TIRIYAYA MOUNTAIN 190
4.4.1. Pilgrimage Features of Tiriyaya Mountain 190
4.4.2. The Legend of Girihandu Seya (Buddha’s Hair Relic) 191
4.4.3. Girihandu Seya Today 195
4.4.4. Staircase with Moonstones (Vatadage Moonstones) 199
4.4.5. Guardian Deities: Nāgaraja Muragals at Tiriyaya 199
4.4.6. Man-Made Pond (Pokuna) 200
4.4.7. Cylindrical Stone Pillars of the Monastery Complex 201
4.4.9. Tiriyaya Archaeological Museum 202
4.4.10. Visitor Information for Girihandu Seya 202
Chapter 5 - The Great Buddha Statues 206
5.1. AVUKANA ROCK BUDDHA STATUE 207
5.1.1. Visitor Information for the Avukana Buddha Statue 207
5.2. SASSERUWA BUDDHA STATUE 208
5.3. BUDURUWAGALA ROCK SANCTUARY 211
5.3.1. Visitor Information for Buduruwagala 214
5.3.2. Udawalawe National Park 214
5.4. MALIGAWILA ROCK BUDDHA STATUE 215
5.4.1. Visitor Information for Maligawila 218
5.5. THANTHIRIMALE ROCK BUDDHA STATUE 219
5.5.1. Visitor Information for Thanthirimale Rock
Buddha Statue 223
5.6. SAMANTABHADRA BODHISATTVA STATUE IN WELIGAMA 223
5.6.1. Visitor Information for Weligama 225
5.7. GAL VIHĀRA ROCK BUDDHA STATUE
IN POLONNARUWA 225
5.8. VISITOR INFORMATION FOR GAL VIHĀRA 227
Chapter 6 - Sri Lanka’s Ancient
Great Monasteries 228
6.1. KELANIYA RAJA MAHĀ VIHĀRA 230
6.1.1. Ancient History and Legends of Kelaniya 230
6.1.2. History of Kelaniya 235
6.1.3. Architecture of the Kelaniya Temple Complex 238
6.1.4. Duruthu Perahera Festival 251
6.1.5. Religious, Cultural, and Educational Center 252
6.1.6. Visitor Information for Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra 252
6.1.7. Nearby Attractions 253
6.2. MUHUDU MAHĀ VIHĀRA 254
6.2.1. History of Muhudu Mahā Vihāra 255
6.2.2. Architecture of Muhudu Mahā Vihāra 256
6.2.3. Visitor Information for Muhudu Mahā Vihāra 258
6.3. ANCIENT MONASTERY COMPLEX:
MEDIRIGIRIYA VATADAGEYA 258
6.3.1. History of Medirigiriya Vatadageya 259
6.3.2. Architecture of the Medirigiriya Vatadageya 262
6.3.3. Visitor Information for Medirigiriya
Vatadageya Stūpa 263
6.4. NALANDA GEDIGE ANCIENT TEMPLE 263
6.4.1. The Term “Nalanda Gedige” 264
6.4.2. History of Nalanda Gedige 265
6.4.3. Visitor Information for Nalanda Gedige 265
6.5. TEMPLE OF THE SACRED TOOTH RELIC (SRI DALADA MALIGAWA) 266
6.5.1. Princess Hemamali Bringing the Sacred
Tooth Relic to Ceylon 267
6.5.2. Architecture of Sri Dalada Maligawa
(Royal Palace of Kandy) 270
6.5.3. Visitor Information for the Sacred
Tooth Relic Temple 276
Chapter 7 - Buddhist Cave Temples Of Sri Lanka 277
7.1. ALUVIHĀRA ROCK TEMPLE 277
7.1.1. Definition and Etymology of the Term “Aluvihāre” 279
7.1.2. History of Aluvihāre: Tipiṭaka Preserved for Two Millennia 280
7.1.3. Architecture of Aluvihāre Rock Temple 287
7.1.4. Visitor Information for Aluvihāre Rock Temple 291
7.2. ARANKALE CAVES 292
7.2.1. Historical References to the Arankale Caves 292
7.2.2. Cave of the Arahant Māliadeva 292
7.2.3. Visitor Information for Arankale Cave Monastery 294
7.3. DIMBULAGALA ROCK MOUNTAIN 295
7.3.1. Definition of “Dimbulagala” 295
7.3.2. History of the Dimbulagala Caves 296
7.3.3. Cave Architecture 300
7.3.4. Visitor Information for Dimbulagala Caves 300
7.4. HATTHIKUCCHI CAVES 301
7.4.1. Architecture of Hatthikucchi 302
7.4.2. Visitor Information for Hatthikucchi 303
7.5. RĀJAGALA ROCK MONASTERY 303
7.5.1. History of Rājagala Rock 303
7.5.2. Visitor Information for Rājagala 305
7.6. RITIGALA MOUNTAIN CAVES 306
7.6.1. Origins of Ritigala and the Pansakulika Ascetic Monks 306
7.6.2. Architecture of the Ritigala Mountain Caves 308
7.6.3. Visitor Information for Ritigala 311
7.7. SITHULPAWWA RAJAMAHĀ CAVE MONASTERY 311
7.7.1. History of Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery 312
7.7.2. Enlightenment on Sithulpawwa Mountain 312
7.7.3. Architecture of the Sithulpawwa Cave Monastery 313
7.7.4. Visitor Information for Sithulpawwa Rajamahā
Cave Monastery 315
7.8. DAMBULLA ROYAL CAVE TEMPLE 315
7.8.1. History of Dambulla Cave Complex 316
7.8.2. Architecture of Dambulla Cave Complex 319
7.8.3. Golden Buddha Temple in Dambulla Town 322
7.8.4. Visitor Information for Dambulla Cave Temple 322
Chapter 8 - White Stūpas With
Hemispherical Architecture 324
8.1. DĪGHAVĀPI ANCIENT GREAT MONASTERY 327
8.1.1. History of Dīghavāpi 327
8.1.2. Visitor Information for Dīghavāpi Stūpa 330
8.2. KANTARODAI STŪPA COMPLEX 330
8.2.1. Architecture of the Kantarodai Stūpa Complex 331
8.2.2. Visitor Information for Kantarodai Stūpa Complex 332
8.3. POLONNARUWA KIRI VIHĀRA:
THE MILK-WHITE STŪPA 332
8.3.1. History of Kiri Vihāra Stūpa 333
8.3.2. Architecture of Kiri Vihāra 333
8.3.3. Visitor Information for Polonnaruwa Kiri Vihāra 334
8.4. KATARAGAMA KIRI VIHĀRA STŪPA 335
8.4.1. History of Kataragama Kiri Vihāra 335
8.4.2. Architecture of Kataragama Kiri Vihāra 338
8.4.3. Visitor Information for Kataragama Kiri Vihāra 338
8.5. KUDUMBIGALA CAVE MONASTERY 340
8.5.1. History of Kudumbigala Cave Monastery 340
8.5.2. Architecture of Kudumbigala Cave Monastery 341
8.5.3. Visitor Information for Kudumbigala Cave Monastery 342
8.6. MAHIYANGANAYA STŪPA 342
8.6.1. History of Mahiyanganaya Stūpa 343
8.6.2. Architecture of the Mahiyanganaya Stūpa 345
8.6.3. Visitor Information for Mahiyanganaya Stūpa 346
8.7. NĀGADĪPA PURĀṆA VIHĀRA ANCIENT MONASTERY 346
8.7.1. History of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra 347
8.7.2. Architecture of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra 349
8.7.3. Main Passage of the Mahāvaṃsa concerning
Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra, (from Chapter 1, verses 44–45) 350
8.7.4. Visitor Information for Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra 351
8.8. TISSAMAHĀRAMA ANCIENT MONASTERY 352
8.8.1. History of Tissamahārama Ancient Monastery 353
8.8.2. Architecture of Tissamahārama Ancient Monastery 353
8.8.3. Visitor Information for Tissamahārama Ancient Monastery 354
Chapter 9 - Practical Information
For Pilgrimage And Devotional Travel 355
9.1. WEATHER PREPARATION 355
9.2. ETIQUETTE AND COMMUNICATION 356
9.3. TRANSPORTATION 357
9.4. CUISINE 357
9.5. MONASTERY ACCOMMODATIONS 357
9.6. ENTRANCE FEES FOR SACRED
AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES 358
9.7. PUBLIC HOLIDAYS
AND RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS 359
9.7.1. Duruthu Pera – Full Moon Festival of January 359
9.7.2. Vesak – The Buddha’s Birthday 359
9.7.3. Poson – Full Moon Festival of July 359
9.7.4. Kandy Esālā Perahera
(Festival of the Sacred Tooth Relic) 360
9.7.5. Mahiyangana Perahera Festival 361
9.8. WELL-KNOWN MEDITATION CENTERS
IN SRI LANKA 362
9.8.1. Kanduboda Siyane International Insight Meditation Center (near Delgoda) 362
9.8.2. Dhamma Kūta Vipassanā Meditation Centre 363
9.8.3. Pāramitā International Buddhist Centre 363
9.8.4. Nilambe Buddhist Meditation Centre 364
9.8.5. Sumantipala Nahimi Senasun Arana
Meditation Centre 365
9.9. LIBRARIES 366
9.9.1. Royal Asiatic Society Library 366
9.9.2. Colombo Public Library 367
9.9.3. D. S. Senanayake Memorial Public Library 368
9.9.4. Buddhist Publication Society 368
9.10. MUSEUMS 369
9.10.1. Columbo National Museum 369
9.10.2. Kandy National Museum 369
9.10.3. Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum 370
9.10.4. Abhayagiri Museum
(Abhayagiri Fa-Hsien Museum) 371
9.10.5. Jetavana Museum 372
9.10.6. Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum 372
Chapter 10 - Conclusion 374
Appendix 378
Report on the Pilgrimage, Charitable Activities,
and Buddhist Conferencesin South Korea, India, and Sri Lanka 378
1. SOUTH KOREA 379
2. INDIA 381
3. SRI LANKA 384
References 392
Websites 395
Charts, Images, and Photos 396
Bào Anh Lạc Bookstore 401
About the Author 412
***
Foreword
Venerable Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero
Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahanto Sammāsaṃbuddhassa
I am happy to write a few words for this English book titled Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka (Vietnamese version is Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Tích Lan) by Venerable Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương. It is an inspirational work expressing appreciation after her two pilgrimages to Sri Lanka in 2016 and 2023. Venerable Giới Hương demonstrates a strong commitment to publication, having authored over one hundred works across the fields of religion, philosophy, and history.
The glorious heritage of Buddhism—its history, culture, and religious tradition in Sri Lanka is presented in this publication with ten chapters and many well-illustrated photos.
Sri Lanka, a tiny island, is situated in the Indian Ocean just off the southern end of India. At its broadest point it measures 272 miles in length and 140 miles in width. It is famous for its magnificent Buddhist historical cave temples, stūpas (cetiyas, dagobas, seyas) relics, and statues dating from ancient times.1. The “jewel island,” as Sri Lanka is called, has been known by
1. In Sri Lankan Buddhist contexts, stūpa (Sanskrit), cetiya (Pāli), dagoba (Sinhala, from dhātugarbha, “relic chamber”), and seya are essentially synonymous terms for the same type of sacred relic monument. They are used interchangeably throughout this work.
different names in the past. The present name was adopted in 1972. Envoys of Sri Lankan kings visited Rome, Persia, China, and Egypt and these visitors and pilgrims included venerable Buddhist commentators Buddhaghosa and Buddhadatta, the Chinese traveler Fa-Hien, the seafarer Ibn Battuta, and the chronicler Robert Knox. Upon their departure, these pilgrims left fascinating descriptions of the island using eighty different names, including Taprobane, Ceylon, Dhammadvipa, and more. This confirms the waves of visitors that Sri Lanka attracted during its incredible twenty-six centuries of history.
This book is a dedicated presentation by Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương. It reflects the history of Sri Lankan Buddhism from its formation to the present. Where there is Dhamma, there will be the capacity to strengthen monasteries and monks. Many great stūpas, temples, and pagodas were built in ancient times to recognize important events. These include Sri Dalada Maligara, the Sacred Tooth Temple (Kandy, seventh century), Mihintale Cave where the Arahant Mahinda (son of King Asoka in India) introduced Buddhism to Ceylon in the third century B.C., the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi tree in Anurādhapura which was brought from India to Ceylon by Therī Sanghamittā (third century B.C.), Aloka Vihāra Matale where the Tipiṭaka was first written on palm leaves (first century A.D.), Mahiyangana Stūpa where the Buddha first visited Ceylon (sixth B.C.), and the Kelaniya Temple, a sacred site commemorating the Buddha’s third and final visit to Sri Lanka.
Looking through the ten chapters with many images, readers will recognize that in the global landscape, Sri Lanka is the second- most important Buddhist holy place after India, the birthplace of Buddhism. Sri Lankan Buddhism is rich in culture, architecture, education, artistic expression, and history.
As a seeker of knowledge exploring historical Buddhist traditions in various parts of the world, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương has visited many countries including India, Japan, Korea,
Thailand, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka. She guided a delegation of nuns and Buddhists in Vietnam, Canada, and the United States to visit Sri Lanka twice, in 2016 and 2023. She and her delegation sponsored two Buddhist seminars at the Universities of Kandy (July 12, 2023) and Colombo (July 16, 2023). The papers presented in these seminars were compiled into two books: Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Period of the 19th to 21st Centuries (Buddhist Studies Conference, Colombo) and Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka (Buddhist Studies Seminar, University of Peradeniya, Kandy).
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương went to Sri Lanka to pay homage at the Buddhist holy sites, make offerings, organize seminars, venerate stūpas, and collect information to prepare for compiling this valuable book, Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka. The final result of her sincere search is that the book was completed. I happily collaborated with Mr. Anura Laxman, Anuluck Tours, Ambalangoda, Sri Lanka, to guide the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation and it is my pleasure to write the foreword for this book.
This publication has the power to inspire many more people, just as it has profoundly touched and moved us. It has evoked a deep sense of admiration for the Three Jewels, along with heartfelt appreciation for the enduring contributions of the Buddha, the patriarchs, and the generous benefactors who have built and sustained Buddhism, particularly in Sri Lanka.
May this new book receive the blessings of the Buddha. I extend my heartfelt congratulations to the author and warmly recommend this handbook to all readers who want to learn about Sri Lankan Buddhism, explore its rich history, or undertake a pilgrimage to this sacred island.
We wish that Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, her nun disciples and Buddhist followers of the Hương Sen Buddhist Temple in California will continue to expand their cultural, academic,
and social activities for the Buddhist Sangha and community in Vietnam and around the world.
Hopefully, this work will help pilgrims, tourists, and readers gain wisdom and awareness about the blessed land with its ancient culture and civilization.
Sarnath, India, April 4, 2024
Venerable Dr. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Thero
President of the Indo-Sri Lanka International
Buddhist Association
High priest, Jambudvipa Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple,
Sarnath-Varanasi, India
***
Introduction
Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương
ri Lanka is an island nation with a lovely water-drop shape in the middle of the vast Indian Ocean. This island is located at the southern end of India so it has influenced
much of Indian culture, especially since the Buddha’s time.
The Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon (Dīpavamsa), compiled in the fourth century BC, reviews the history of Sri Lankan Buddhism, which dates back to the time when the Buddha was still alive. Legend says that the Buddha first came to Sri Lanka when he visited the village of Mahiyanganaya to resolve a dispute between the Yakkas and the Nāgas. He then taught the Dhamma to Sumana Saman, the chief of the village, and afterwards gave a lock of his hair for the villagers to honor.2.
- Venerable S. Dhammika, Sacred Island: A Buddhist Pilgrim’s Guide to Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society), 12–19;
“Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihara,” Wikipedia; “Poson Full Moon Poya,” Office Holidays.
Map and flag of Sri Lanka.3.
After the Buddha entered nibbāna and after the third council, the holy monk, Arhanthā Mahinda Thero (son of King Ashoka and brother of the holy founder Bhikkhunī Sanghamittā), came from India to Sri Lanka and taught the Dhamma to King Devanampiyatissa at Mount Mihintale, the Anurādhapura capital, during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa. From that point onward, Buddhism spread across the island, earning Mount Mihintale the title “cradle of Sri Lankan Buddhism.”
According to the Mahābodhivamsa: Chronicle of the Bodhi Tree, written in the third century BC, the holy matriarch Bhikkhunī Sanghamittā Therī (daughter of emperor Asoka) obeyed her father’s command and she and her brother, Arhanthā Mahinda Thero, served as missionary messengers from India to Sri Lanka to establish a nun’s sangha there. They taught the Dhamma and brought a Bodhi tree branch taken from the original Bodhi tree (the enlightenment symbol) where the Buddha meditated and attained enlightenment in Bodhgaya, Bihar, India. They
3. RaviC, Flag Map of Sri Lanka, Wikimedia Commons.
planted the branch in the city of Anurādhapura. Time passed with many successive generations, and the Bodhi tree still lives, lush and green to this day. From that day on, the ancient capital Anurādhapura became sacred and famous for the world’s ancient Bodhi tree.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation kneeling before the ancient Pāli Tipiṭaka
and various archaeological stone artifacts, July 13, 2023.
The Chronicle of the Tooth Relic (Dhātuvamsa) records that in the fourth century (310 CE), Emperor Guhāsimha of Orissa sent his daughter to Sri Lanka with the Buddha’s tooth relic. Daladāsirita and Daladāpūjāvaliya describe the Festival of the Tooth (the procession of the Buddha’s tooth relic around the city) as large and majestic. The place to worship the Buddha’s tooth is called the Royal Sri Dalada Maligawa Pagoda, a national treasure in the city of Kandy, central Sri Lanka.
The Pāli Tipiṭaka is known as stemming from an oral tradition. In the year 29 BC, the Sri Lankan Sangha gathered at Aloka Temple at Aluvihāra, Matale, between the ancient capital of Anurādhapura and the city of Kandy, to record in writing the Pāli Tipiṭaka for the first time. That ancient Pāli Tipiṭaka is still honored at Aloka Temple.
With 2,272 years of Buddhist history, Sri Lanka is truly a legend
of ancient Buddhism, and is one of the countries with the most ancient Buddhist heritage in the world. There are eight places recognized by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. These are:4.
1. The oldest Bodhi tree (from the third century BC)
2. Sanctuary complexes in the city of Anurādhapura (third century BC)
3. The ancient Pāli Tipiṭaka, kept at Aloka Temple in the Aluvihāra Cave, Matale District (written in the first century BCE)
4. The Buddha’s Tooth Relic, a national treasure, is honored at Sri Dalada Maligawa Royal Pagoda in the city of Kandy.
5. Polonnaruwa Stone Pagoda (twelfth century)
6. Sigiriya Lion Rock and the ancient citadel on the multicolored Sigiriya Lion Claw Rock (fifth century)
7. Golden pagoda in Dambulla Cave (first century BC)
8. Galle Fort (fifteenth century)
In addition to the eight world cultural heritage sites in Sri Lanka, there are sixteen famous sacred places (solosmasthanas) in Sri Lanka:
1. Mahiyangana Raja Mahā Vihāra
2. Nāga Deepa Purana Vihāra
3. Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra
4. Sri Pada
5. Diva Guhava (Batatotalena Cave)
6. Deegavapi Raja Mahā Vihāra
7. Muthiyangana Raja Mahā Vihāra
4. “Sites of Sri Lanka,” Nekhor: An Overview of Sri Lanka’s Sacred Sites, https:// www.nekhor.org/sites-of-sri-lanka
- Tissa Mahārama Raja Mahā Vihāra
9. Sri Mahā Bodhi
10. Mirisawetiya Stūpa
11. Ruwanweli Stūpa
12. Thuparamaya Stūpa
13. Abhayagiri Stūpa
14. Jetavanarama Stūpa
15. Sela Cetiya
16. Kiri Vihāra
Venerable Siri Sumedha (center), Venerable Aparakke Sugathawansa (left of Venerable Sumedha), Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương (right of Venerable Sumedha), and the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation at Bandaranaike International Airport, Colombo, Katunayake, Sri Lanka, August 16, 2016.
Inspired by the aspiration to honor Sri Lanka’s rich cultural heritage and sacred Buddhist sites, the bhikṣuṇīs of Hương Sen Temple have undertaken two pilgrimages to venerate the Buddha’s relics, while also engaging in charitable activities and participating in Buddhist seminars throughout Sri Lanka. The first trip was from August 15, 2016 to August 23, 2016. The
delegation consisted of nine people: Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, (Abbess of Hương Sen Temple), Rev. TN Vien Quang, Rev. TN Vien Chan, Mrs. Vien P Hương (older sister of Venerable Giới Hương), three lay Buddhists: Tam Tue Nguyet, Dieu Tinh, and Quang Nhu, with the guidance of Venerable Dr. Siri Sumedha Thero and tour guide Mr. Anura Laksman.
The second trip was from July 9, 2023 to July 20, 2023. The delegation included eleven people: Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (Abbess of Hương Sen Temple), Rev. TN Trí Minh (younger sister of TN Giới Hương), Rev. Vien Bao, Rev. Vien Dao, Rev. Duc Tri, Rev. Viên Nhuận, Rev. Viên Giác, Rev. Viên Lành, Mrs. Viên Lệ, Mrs. Viên Phương, and Mrs. Viên Đào. The tour guides for the Sri Lanka tour (same as the first trip) were Venerable Dr. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha and Mr. Laksman Anu.
We paid our respects through meditation, chanting the Buddha’s name, and reciting sutras before sacred Buddhist relics preserved for over a thousand years. During the journey, we also explored the breathtaking natural beauty of Sri Lanka’s eastern island. In addition, we carried out charitable activities: distributing gifts to the underprivileged, making offerings to monks and overseas students, and organizing Buddhist seminars at the Faculty of Education and the Faculty of Buddhist Studies at the University of Peradeniya in Kandy, as well as at Mahinda International Dhammaduta Society in Colombo.
With the aim of introducing readers to the rich spiritual Buddhist heritage of Sri Lanka and sharing personal memories and experiences from pilgrimages, charitable activities, and Buddhist seminars on this sacred island, the author has compiled information and images from scriptures, historical documents, the internet, Sri Lankan tour guides, and direct field visits. The result is two beautifully illustrated books, each consisting of ten chapters, titled Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka (Vietnamese) and Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka.
My knowledge remains limited, especially regarding the
profound heritage of Sri Lanka, an island blessed with a deep and ancient Theravāda tradition. Despite these shortcomings, a fervent devotion to the religion inspires me to share what I have seen, heard, and personally experienced. I therefore openly acknowledge the possibility of errors and do not shrink from the effort. With respect, I welcome guidance and corrections from the esteemed Sangha, scholars, and readers alike, in the hope that future editions may become more comprehensive and accurate.
On this occasion, I would like to express my gratitude to the Venerable Monks and Nuns, Buddhists from near and far, and organizations and associations who have contributed, helped, and provided guidance during the preparation of this book. The honor list includes:
1. The Most Venerable Professor Medagama Nandawansa Mahā Thero, patron of Mahā Mahinda International Dhammadutha Society and academic members of Sri Lanka Vidyalaya Maradana Colombo 10
2. Venerable Panditha Talatuoye Samiddhi Siri Thero, Venerable Monks and members of Dayaka Sabha Koombiyangoda Temple, Matale, Sri Lanka
3. Venerable Dr. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Thero, Venerable Kandalame Piyasiri Thero, Venerable Nikapitiye Nandarathana Thero, and staff members of Jambudvipa Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Sarnath, Varanasi, India
4. Venerable Nuns, devotees from USA, Canada, and Vietnam who accompanied two pilgrimage tours to Sri Lanka and India in 2016 and 2023. Heartfelt thanks to editors Ms. Pamela Kirby and Bhikṣuṇī TN Đức Trí for their diligent proofreading of the English edition
5. Mr. Anura Laksman, managing director of Anu Luck Tours Ambalangoda and the Tourism Association
- Donors who made offerings to pilgrimages, charities, conferences, and contributed their expertise to make this book possible
7. The authorities, management, agencies, archeological m useums, media agencies, and ancient pilgrimage sites in Sri Lanka
8. Internet sites, Google, Wikipedia, websites, blogs, and many other online sources. Additionally, generative artificial intelligence tools assisted in rephrasing sentences, organizing content, and editing for clarity, with all final content reviewed and approved by the author.
9. Editors, publishers, writers, journalists, pilgrims, and tour guides have all provided valuable information for this book (as listed in the reference sources).
10. Tôn Giáo (Religion) Publishing House in Hanoi, Vietnam who issued a publishing license for the Vietnamese version
11. Special thanks to Hương Sen Publishing and Mr. Vũ Đình Trọng, the book designer whose creative touch gave this work its fresh, contemporary appeal and helped it reach a broader audience
1. The list of supporters is long and heartfelt. We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all those who contributed with great effort and kindness to the successful publication of both the Vietnamese and English editions of Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka.
With this book, we hope to help readers and pilgrims have a basic knowledge of the history and thousand-year-old relics and artifacts of Sri Lanka. Our goal is to help cultivate a deeper connection with Buddhism, nurturing profound reverence and steadfast faith. Shakyamuni Buddha was a great man in the history of human thought and his footprints and teachings have spread and developed in Sri Lanka and many countries around the world.
Please come, pay respects, and enjoy the Buddhist heritage, the sacred Bodhi tree, the Buddha Tooth Relics, the architectural masterpieces of temples and pagodas of an ancient and modern Sri Lankan civilization. These are a source of immense pride for Sri Lankan Buddhism and for Buddhism throughout the world.
Namo Sakyamuni Buddha, Master of gods and humans, has shown us the way.
Hương Sen Spring of 2026 Respectfully,
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương
Venerable Siri Sumedha (far right), Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương (next to him), and the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation at the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi tree, Anurādhapura, July 11, 2023.
***
Chapter 1
The Country Of Ceylon
1.1. THE ISLAND OF CEYLON (SRI LANKA)
ri Lanka, aptly called the Pearl of the Indian Ocean, is a charming and peaceful island of nearly 23 million people, situated nineteen miles south of India and serving as a
bridge between East Asia and East Africa.
Map of the teardrop-shaped island of Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean.5.
- Eric Gaba (Sting), Sri Lanka carte.png, Wikimedia Commons.
Throughout its long history, Sri Lanka has been known by many names, including Tambapanni (Copper-Colored Hands), Lankādīpa (Lanka Island), Ratnadīpa (Island of Gems), Sinhaladīpa or Sinhala (Island of Lions), Ceylon (the English name prior to 1973), and subsequently officially renamed the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka has a total area of 25,332 square miles with 380 square miles of water. Its coastline stretches 830 miles. The main island of Sri Lanka is the twenty-fifth largest island in the world. The largest offshore island, Mannar Island, leads to Adam’s Bridge.
Sri Lanka’s climate is tropical monsoon: the northeast monsoon is from December to March and the southwest monsoon is from June to October. The country’s topography is predominantly low, flat to rolling plains with mountains in the south-central interior. The highest point is Pidurutalagala over 8,000 feet. Natural resources include limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gemstones, phosphates, clay, and hydropower.6.
Approximately 70 percent of Sri Lanka’s population practices Theravāda Buddhism (shown in purple in the chart below). Hinduism accounts for 15 percent (red), Islam 7 percent (blue), while Catholics and those with no religion together make up the remaining 8 percent (shown in yellow and white respectively).7.
- “Sri Lanka,” Wikipedia.
7. “Demographics of Sri Lanka,” Wikipedia;
Robert Stoddard, “Characteristics of Buddhist Pilgrimages in Sri Lanka,” Geography Faculty Publications, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 1988,
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032 &context=geographyfacpub
Religions in Sri Lanka, 2012 Census.8.
In terms of ethnicity and language, Sri Lankans comprise the majority (74 percent) making Sinhala the country’s primary language. Tamils account for 18 percent and speak the Tamil language, while other ethnic groups make up only 8 percent, speaking Hindi, Arabic, Burghers, and their indigenous local languages. English is widely used by the government, especially in schools, public offices, and international transactions.
As a tropical island nation, Sri Lanka is renowned for producing and exporting tea, coffee, rice, coconuts, and seafood. Its modern industries and thriving tourism sector have significantly contributed to the island’s economic transformation.
Sri Lanka’s tropical climate features distinct dry and wet seasons. Generally, the coastal areas of Sri Lanka experience an average temperature of 82°F, while the cooler, more temperate highland regions average around 60–68°F. Although Sri Lanka can be visited year-round, the peak season for pilgrimage and tourism is typically between mid-December and mid-April.
8. Eric Gaba (Sting), Sri Lanka: Majority Ethnicity by DS Division, 2012 Census, Wikimedia Commons.
Ethnic groups of Sri Lanka.9.
Throughout its 2,260-year-history, this beautiful island has faced invasions and colonization by various powerful foreign forces, including the Chola Empire (eleventh-thirteenth centuries), the Portuguese (sixteenth century), the Dutch (seventeenth century), and the British Empire (nineteenth century). During World War II in 1945, Ceylon was considered a crucial battle base against the Japanese invasion in the Pacific. In 1948, a strong sense of nationalism emerged, and the people of Sri Lanka gained independence, ending British colonial rule and ushering in a period of independent, self-governing development that continues to this day.
- Rarelibra and BishkekRocks, Sri Lanka Ethnic Map, Wikimedia Commons.
Author Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương at the statues of the Sri Lankan Sangha on almsround on the way from Colombo to Kandy, near the city of Varakapola, August 20, 2023.
From the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, Christianity flourished in Sri Lanka, while Buddhism experienced a decline. This was largely due to the Christian colonial rulers and adherents of other religions, such as Hinduism, Tamil faiths, and Islam, who primarily favored their own beliefs. Many followers of these other religions living in Sri Lanka were originally Indian Hindus, Muslims, or Tamils who, along with their families, migrated to Ceylon to establish livelihoods as plantation workers under the Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial administrations. As Ernst Benz noted, “The majority of the Muslim minority were descendants of the Indian Muslim colonial troops whom the British had brought to Sri Lanka, and who, along with their families, settled in Ceylon.”10.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Sri Lankan Buddhism
- S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, Excerpt from Buddhism or Communism: Which Holds the Future of Asia? Thư Viện Hoa Sen, http://thuvienhoasen.org
began to reclaim its historical position as the state religion with the emergence of many eminent monks and profound Buddhist scholars. Numerous Buddhist schools and training centers for monastics flourished, such as Vidyodaya Pirivena, Vidyalankara Pirivena, and the Post Graduate Institute of Pāli and Buddhist Studies at the University of Kelaniya. A significant number of Buddhist scriptures were printed, notably the dissemination of the Nikāya Pitaka in English, translated from Pāli by the Pāli Text Society of the UK.
Venerable Anagārika Dhammapāla stands as one of the great Sri Lankan leaders who played a pivotal role in the twentieth- century Buddhist revival in both India and Sri Lanka. Through his founding of the Mahā Bodhi Society in 1891, he spearheaded efforts to restore sacred sites like Bodh Gaya and Sarnath, breathing new life into Buddhism in the land of its origin after centuries of decline. He also tirelessly promoted the Dhamma globally, representing Buddhism at the 1893 Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago and inspiring its transmission to the West while strengthening Sinhala Buddhist identity and nationalist sentiments in colonial Ceylon. His visionary work continues to influence Buddhist revival movements worldwide.
Among leaders were individuals who were originally Christian but renounced their Christian faith to embrace Buddhism. A notable example is S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, who served as the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka and was assassinated on September 26, 1958. Bandaranaike, originally a Christian, had studied in England. Upon his return, his first act was to publicly abandon his former faith and declare himself a Buddhist. Concurrently, he discarded Western attire and wore traditional national dress to actively participate in the struggle for Sri Lanka’s freedom. Bandaranaike was a member of the Mahā Bodhi Society in Sri Lanka and had actively supported the Society’s efforts to revitalize Buddhism in the nation.11.
- Bandaranaike, Excerpt from Buddhism or Communism.
1.2. COLOMBO, THE CAPITAL CITY OF SRI LANKA
Colombo, spanning fourteen square miles on the island’s west coast, is Sri Lanka’s financial capital, economic hub, commercial center, and largest city, boasting a population of 5.6 million people.12. Colombo is a bustling and vibrant metropolis featuring modern industries, luxurious shopping centers, and a blend of towering contemporary architecture with rich colonial heritage buildings.
Due to its large harbor and strategic location along east-west maritime trade routes, Colombo was known to ancient traders 2,000 years ago (the first capital was Anurādhapura, followed by Polonnaruwa in the northern part of the island). The Portuguese, Dutch, and British successively ruled Colombo, yet it maintained its status as the capital after the nation gained independence from British colonial rule in 1948. In 1978, when administrative functions were transferred to Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Colombo was designated as the commercial capital of Sri Lanka.
The city of Colombo.13.
- Colombo,” Wikipedia, last modified March 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Colombo
13. Dronepicr, Colombo Sunset Aerial Pano, Wikimedia Commons.
Venerable Giới Hương visits the capital of Sri Lanka and the University of Colombo, August 23, 2016.
Notable landmarks in Colombo include Galle Face Green Beach, Vihāra Mahādevi Park (featuring a large stone Buddha statue), Beira Lake, Colombo Racecourse, Colombo Planetarium, University of Colombo, Mount Lavinia Beach, Dehiwala Zoo, Nelum Pokuna Theatre, Colombo Lotus Tower, and the National Museum of Colombo.
Venerable Siri Sumedha, Venerable TN Giới Hương, and the Pilgrimage Delegation from Hương Sen Temple visited Trúc Lâm Zen Monastery, Kandy,
headed by Venerable Pháp Quang, July 15, 2023.
***
Chapter 2
Buddhism in Sri Lanka
ri Lanka, an island nation south of the Indian subcontinent, has maintained frequent interactions with India since ancient times. This continuous exchange has led to significant mutual influences in culture, politics, religion, economy, trade, and art between the two neighboring countries,
resulting in many shared characteristics.
Maritime trade served as the primary channel of contact between ancient communities of India and Sri Lanka. The Buddha and esteemed patriarchs likewise traveled by sea to transmit the Dhamma to Sri Lanka.
2.1. THE BUDDHA’S THREE VISITS TO CEYLON
According to the three Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Mahāvamsa,14. Dīpavamsa,15. and the Samantapāsādikā,16. there is a traditional account that foresees decline of the Dhamma in India. The Buddha desired for Buddhism to endure and
14. Mahāvamsa: The Great Chronicle, written in Pāli in epic style in the fifth century CE.
15. Dīpavamsa: The Chronicle of the Island, compiled in the fourth century BCE, narrates the history of Buddhism from the time of the Buddha.
16. Samantapāsādikā: A Commentary on the Theravāda Vinaya Pitaka. This is the translation of Sinhala commentaries into Pāli by the Great Master Buddhaghosa.
flourish in the neighboring island nation of Sri Lanka. Thus, he personally undertook three visits to Sri Lanka: in the ninth month, the fifth year, and the eighth year after his enlightenment under the Bodhi tree.17.
Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation at the Buddha statue located at Aloka Vihāra Cave Temple, Matale, July 13, 2023.
His first overseas trip to share the Dhamma, nine months after his enlightenment, was to the village of Mahiyangana in Sri Lanka. The yakkas (demi-gods), rakshasas (demons), and nāgas (divine serpents) welcomed, honored, and admired the Buddha‘s enlightened power. Therefore, he promised to return to the island to transmit the Dhamma.
The Buddha’s second Dhamma teaching journey occurred five years after his enlightenment. He perceived a war for the throne between two Naga kings, Culodara and Mahodara. He returned to the island to act as a peace envoy for both sides. After hearing
- T. Y. Lee, Island of Light: Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Concise History and Guide to Its Sacred Sites, foreword by Venerable P. Gnanarama (Singapore: KepMedia International Pte Ltd, 2010), 14. (The Buddha visited Sri Lanka three times in the fifth century CE).
his teachings, the two kings declined the throne and ceded it to a third Nāga king, Maniakkhika of Kelaniya.
Three years later, Nāga king Maniakkhika invited the Buddha to Kelaniya to teach the Dhamma. When the Buddha arrived at Sri Pada mountain, he left the imprint of his footprint on its peak. Before returning to India, he personally visited Dighavapi, Anurādhapura, and many other places on the island.
2.2. PRINCE VIJAYA: THE FIRST KING OF CEYLON
History records that in 543 BCE, on the very day of the Buddha’s parinibbāna, Prince Vijaya, a Kshatriya of Indian descent, set out with 700 soldiers to find new land for settlement.18. They reached the northwestern part of Sri Lanka and settled there to live. The prince married a local princess named Kuveni and began to rule this island nation. From that point, the presence of the Sinhala people and the establishment of their nation began. Vijaya is considered by Sri Lankan historians to be the first traditional ruler of the itinerant Sinhalese.
At the request of Emperor Vijaya’s chief ministers, King Pandya of Madhura (India) sent his daughter to Sri Lanka to become Queen Vijaya. Accompanying the princess were many royal ladies from the Pandyan kingdom, numerous skilled artisans, and thousands of families from eighteen guilds who came to settle with the princess. According to certain Sri Lankan chronicles like the Mahāvamsa, these Pandyan people were of noble Kshatriya (warrior) lineage with legendary ties to northern India’s Madhyadesa where Shakyamuni Buddha spent forty-five years teaching the Dhamma.
Subsequently, King Vijaya deposed Queen Kuveni to marry the princess of the Pandyan kingdom (Madura) and establish her as his chief queen. The maids who attended the princess were
18. Lee, Island of Light, 15.
given by the king to his court officials.
Vijaya ruled from his settlement of Tambappanni, and his ministers established other settlements such as Anuraadhagaama, Upatissagaama, Ujjeni, Uruvelaa, and Vijitapura. Thus, the earliest settlements established during King Vijaya’s time were located along the riverbanks in the northwestern region of Lanka, such as Malvatu Oya and Kalaa Oya.
After a thirty-eight-year reign, King Vijaya passed away. As he had no direct male heir, his nephew, Panduvasudeva, succeeded him. Panduvasudeva summoned the thirty-two sons of the chief ministers to the court to serve.
Prince Vijaya is considered the first king of the Sinhalese nomads.19.
- Sculpture of Vijaya, Chennakeshava temple, Wikimedia Commons.
The chronicles record the connection between the Sakya clan of the Buddha and the island nation of Lanka (short for Sri Lanka) during King Panduvasudeva’s era. Princess Bhaddakaccana arrived in Lanka with thirty-two handmaidens immediately after Panduvasudeva’s reign began. The princess was the daughter of Pandu Sakka, who was the son of Amitodana, an uncle of the Buddha.
A fresco in Ajanta Cave No. 17 in India depicts the arrival of Sinhala Prince Vijaya escorted by his army on elephants.20.
- A section of the mural from Ajanta Cave 17 depicts the coming of Sinhala. Prince Vijaya is seen in both groups of elephants and riders. Anonymous artists of Ajanta, “Coming of Sinhala” (Arrival of Prince Vijaya), detail of mural, Cave 17, Ajanta Caves, India, ca. 460–480 CE, photograph from Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coming_Of_Sinhala_ (Mural_At_Ajanta_In_Cave_No_17).jpg.
Prince Vijaya,” Wikipedia, last modified March 13, 2026, https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Prince_Vijaya.
Successive kings included Panduvasudeva, Abhaya, Pandukabhaya, Mutasiva, and Devanampiya Tissa. Among these, Pandukabhaya was a prominent ruler during whose reign Anurādhapura developed into a great city with a splendid ancient Sri Lankan civilization around 250 BCE, which was 236 years after Vijaya settled on the island of Lanka.
This 236-year period can be considered a distinct era in Sri Lankan history as it laid the foundation for the official introduction of Buddhism. During this period, Aryan colonizers established settlements along fertile riverbanks almost throughout the island. They chose riverbanks for settlement because Aryans were primarily farmers. Consequently, coastal areas such as Malvatuoya, Kalaoya, Valaveganga, Kirindioya, Menikganga, Kumbukkanoya, Kelaniganga, and some areas around Mahāveliganga soon became densely populated. Anurādhapura became a thriving, beautiful capital with man- made reservoirs, hospitals, and other buildings constructed. In the south, Mahāgama became a center of activity. The majority of the indigenous population integrated into the new community through intermarriage, while a small number moved to the Malayadesa highlands.21.
2.3. VENERABLE MAHĀ MAHINDA THERO: FIRST DHAMMA TEACHER IN CEYLON
The Third Buddhist Council (around 250 BCE), held in the city of Pataliputta, India, marked a pivotal period in Buddhist history. It was at this time that Theravāda Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka.
The history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka truly began with the arrival of Bhikkhu Thera Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka (Aśoka or Dhammaśoka), who journeyed from India to Sri Lanka to
- Perera, Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
See: https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html#sect-47
teach the Dhamma during the reign of King Devānampiya Tissa (236 years after Emperor Vijaya). He delivered the teachings to the people, who were able to comprehend and readily integrate the Buddha’s message of liberation into their daily lives.
From then on, the profound Dhamma spread throughout the island. This demonstrates the compassionate, missionary, and enlightened energy of the Arahant Thera Mahinda, fulfilling the last instructions of the compassionate World-Honored One: “Monks, go forth to areas you desire, let not two go the same way. Teach and expound the Dhamma to many, to the best of your ability,” or “Go forth, for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world, for the welfare, the good, the happiness of devas and humans.”22.
According to the chronicles, Emperor Ashoka and King Devānampiya Tissa (Sri Lanka) were very close neighboring friends, despite never having met in person. King Devānampiya Tissa frequently sent important ministers or envoys with valuable gifts to India. In return for this friendship, Emperor Ashoka often dispatched diplomatic missionary delegations to Sri Lanka. For instance, he sent his son, Bhikkhu Thera Mahinda, to Sri Lanka to introduce Buddhism with a message imbued with the Dhamma’s essence:
I have taken refuge in the Buddha, in the Dhamma, and in the Sangha. I have declared myself a lay follower in the religion of the Shakya. Now, O Great King! You, the most esteemed among your people, whose mind has been transformed by the Dhamma, should take refuge in the Triple Gem among all treasures.23.
I have taken refuge in the Buddha, his Doctrine and his Order, I have declared myself a lay-disciple in the religion of the Sakya son; seek then, O best of men, refuge in these best of gems,
- Anguttara Nikāya I, Chapter 1, “”The One Person,” an excerpt from The Tathagata, published by VNCPHVN (Viện Cao Đẳng Phật Học Việt Nam), 1996, 46.
23. Mahāvaṃsa, trans. Geiger.
converting your mind with believing heart.24.
Sixty-eight practice caves led by Arahant Mahinda.
Photos taken on July 11, 2023.
On the full moon day of the month of Jetta, in the Buddhist year 236 (corresponding to 308 BCE, the eighteenth year of
Emperor Ashoka’s reign), the Venerable Mahā Mahinda, along with the Indian missionary delegation, arrived at the summit of Missaka Mountain. This prominent peak rises amidst the fertile surrounding plains, located in what is now the town of Mihintale (eight miles east of the capital, Anurādhapura).
- Perera, Buddhism in Sri Lanka, sec. 7.
King Devānampiya Tissa respectfully welcomed the missionary delegation of Venerable Mahā Mahinda in the capital city of Anurādhapura. The Cūlahatthipadopama Sutta was the discourse that Venerable Mahā Mahinda delivered to the king, explaining the significance of taking refuge in the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha), the monastic life of the bhikkhus, and insight wisdom.25. Subsequently, the king, many officials, and the populace took the Three Refuges and Five Precepts, becoming disciples of the Buddha.26.
The king, with a pure and fervent devotion, arranged for devout followers from far and near to hear the teachings of the World- Honored One. Venerable Mahā Mahinda’s sermons possessed a powerful transformative influence, enabling everyone to grasp the Buddha’s compassionate and wise teachings. Soon after, the message of the original teacher quickly resonated throughout the island. Buddhism was officially recognized, and the Bhikkhu Sangha (monastic community) was established. This marked an historic milestone, indicating that the Theravāda school of Buddhism had officially spread beyond India and transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of King Devānampiya Tissa. Sri Lanka thus became an ancient global center of Buddhism.
- Majjhima Nikāya 27, “The Shorter Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant’s Footprint,” trans. Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi in The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya, 4th ed. (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009), 269.
26. Piyadassi, Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
From left: Bhikkhunī Viên Nhuận, Venerable Siri Sumedha, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Bhikkhunī Viên Bảo,
and Bhikkhunī Viên Lành photographed on the path leading up to the summit of Mihintale Great Stūpa on July 11, 2023.
From left: Bhikkhunī Viên Nhuận and Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, at a stone cave door of Mihintale Caves on July 11, 2023.
2.4. VENERABLE BHIKKHUNĪ SANGHAMITTĀ THERĪ ESTABLISHES THE BHIKKHUNĪ ORDER
Queen Anulā, the consort of a sub-king named Mahānāga, along with 500 handmaidens, came to hear the Dharma and earnestly requested Venerable Mahinda to grant them ordination, desiring to follow in the footsteps of the World- Honored One. However, at that time, there was no Bhikkhunī Saṅgha in Sri Lanka, and according to the monastic discipline, Venerable Mahinda was not authorized to preside over the ordination of women; only a Buddha or an established bhikkhunī saṅgha had that authority. Therefore, Venerable Mahinda suggested that King Devānampiya Tissa invite the Venerable Bhikkhunī Saṅghamittā Theri, his sister, who was then a bhikkhunī in India, to come to Sri Lanka to perform the ordination ceremony for women and establish the Bhikkhunī Saṅgha.
King Devānampiya Tissa joyfully extended the invitation, and the Venerable Bhikkhunī Saṅghamittā Theri traveled to Sri Lanka to establish the Bhikkhunī Order. The Venerable Matriarch brought with her a sapling of the Bodhi tree, propagated from the original Bodhi tree by the Nerañjarā River, where the World-Honored One meditated for forty-nine days and attained enlightenment.
King Devānampiya Tissa organized an extraordinary grand ceremony to receive the sacred Bodhi sapling, which was then planted in the Megha Garden in the capital, Anurādhapura.
Today, this sacred Bodhi tree remains vibrant and lush, even after enduring more than 2,300 years. Millions of devotees and visitors from around the world continue to come here on pilgrimage. Recognized as the oldest living human-planted tree in the world, the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi stands as a living link to the time of the Buddha. From this venerable parent tree, many saplings have been propagated and planted in numerous monasteries across Sri Lanka and in temples worldwide.
Venerable Bhikkhunī Saṅghamittā Theri herself is regarded as the Matriarch of the Bhikkhunī Order in Sri Lankan Buddhism. It was through her ordination that the Bhikkhunī Saṅgha was established, has survived, and continues to flourish to this day. Consequently, nearly every Bhikkhunī temple in Sri Lanka enshrines a statue of the Venerable Matriarch Saṅghamittā Theri.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương photographed with bhikkhunīs
at the statue of the Venerable Matriarch Sanghamittā Therī, Colombo Susīlavasa Temple on July 19, 2023.
2.5. BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA
Following the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, numerous temples, monasteries, and centers for the study and research of Theravāda Buddhism were established. The original Nikāya scriptures, initially in the ancient Prakrit language and Pāli, were committed to writing on palm leaves around 30 BCE.27.
27. Prakrits are a group of Middle Indo-Aryan vernacular languages used in India from the third century BCE to the eighth century CE. The term “Prakrit” is often applied to the middle period of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, excluding earlier inscriptions and later Pāli. John Clifford Holt, Theravāda Traditions:
This ancient Pāli Tipiṭaka is still enshrined at Aloka Vihāra (Aluvihāra), Matale.
The author, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương and Bhikkhunī Viên Quang kneeling before the Pāli Tipiṭaka at Aluvihāra Temple, Matale, August 16, 2016.
Kings sponsored the construction of many magnificent Theravāda Buddhist temples, such as Ruvanvelisaya, Abhayagiriya, and Jetavana. In the fourth century CE, during the reign of King Mahānama (who succeeded Emperor Sirimeghavanna), Buddhist literature in Sri Lanka flourished and gained recognition across India and beyond. Many Sinhalese monks visited India, China, and other countries to introduce the published literature of Sri Lanka. Conversely, monks from India and China came to venerate Anurādhapura, writing travelogues, translating texts, and taking ancient Sri Lankan Buddhist scriptures back to their own countries for wider dissemination.
Numerous Dhamma masters, lecturers, researchers, and scholars came to teach the Dhamma, pay homage, and translate the Buddhist Canon.Among them was the great master Buddhaghosa, who came from India and authored many valuable Buddhist commentaries such as the Pāli Aṭṭhakathā Commentaries in 410 CE. He resided at Mahā Vihāra Monastery, the first Theravāda
Buddhist Ritual Cultures in Contemporary Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2017), 68.
Buddhist monastery in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura. Likewise, Dhamma Master Fa-Hein (Faxian, fifth century CE) visited and studied at Abhayagiri Monastery in Polonnaruwa and recorded many ancient Sri Lankan Buddhist accounts. He noted that between 3,000 and 5,000 monks were studying at Abhayagiri and Mahāvihāra Monasteries. Mahāvihāra Monastery is considered the foundational patriarchate, the cradle of the Theravāda Buddhist tradition. The three patriarchates of Ruvanvelisaya, Abhayagiriya, and Jetavana developed strongly as main centers with many branches (nikāyas: chapters or sects) in various locations.
The Jetavanarama Dagoba, located within the Jetavana Monastery complex in Anurādhapura, is recognized
by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.28.
The pilgrim Xuanzang (seventh century CE) wrote about the Theravāda Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka and mentioned Abhayagiri Monastery as a place where both Mahāyāna Sthaviras and Hinayāna Sthaviras traditions were practiced.29. In the eighth century CE, two Indian monks, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, visited Ceylon, propagating Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism (which was prevalent in northern India). Some Sri Lankan monks began chanting tantric mantras and holding prayer beads for Amitābha Buddha according to the Pure Land practice of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Several statues of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva and Vajrapani were also found in
28. Adam Jones, Panorama of Jetavanarama Dagoba, Anuradhapura, Wikimedia Commons.
29. Holt, Theravāda Traditions, 68.
ancient ruins.
Due to the demands of cultural exchange, Sri Lanka was also influenced by Buddhist schools from neighboring countries. However, the Theravāda tradition remained the most dominant, representing a pure, orthodox, uninterrupted, and characteristic lineage of Sri Lankan Buddhism. Southeast Asian peninsular countries such as Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka are all countries that adhere to the Theravāda Buddhist tradition.
Just as life experiences rise and fall, so too has the situation of Buddhism on the island of Sri Lanka. From the fifth to the eleventh century, Sri Lanka endured civil wars and foreign invasions, which caused Buddhism to decline. It was not until the time of Parakramabahu I (1153 CE) that with the assistance of Thai and Burmese monks who came to teach the Dhamma, Buddhism gradually recovered. Many temples and monasteries were renovated, and numerous Buddhist scriptures and commentaries were published and popularized. Parakramabahu II of Dambadeniya (from 1236 CE) was a king deeply learned in the Dhamma who authored several Buddhist texts in Sinhalese.
In the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, Sri Lanka was ruled by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, who sought to convert the island’s colonial inhabitants to Christianity. They promoted Christianity while suppressing and restricting Buddhism, causing it to gradually decline. In the 1700s, many indigenous Sinhalese rulers in Kandy, such as Vira Narendra Sinha (1706–1739) and Sri Vijaya Rajasinha (1739–1747) wholeheartedly supported the Dhamma, leading to the restoration of several temples and monasteries. To counter the oppression of Buddhism, a powerful nationwide Buddhist revival emerged in the nineteenth century.30.
- Please refer to the work: “Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Period of the 19th to 21st Centuries,” Buddhist Studies Conference, Colombo, July 16, 2023.
2.6. THE MODERN BUDDHIST REVIVAL
When discussing the contributions to the nineteenth-century Buddhist revival and the struggle for religious freedom, several key events must be mentioned:
A series of public debates took place between Christian clergy and Buddhist representatives in various locations, including Badegama, Udanwita, Waragoda, Liyanagemulla, and Gampola. The Buddhist side was represented by the renowned orators, Venerable Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera and Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera. These debates were widely regarded by many as a clear victory for Buddhism.31.
After reading about these debates in an American newspaper, Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, an American who arrived in Sri Lanka in May 1880, collaborated with Venerable Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera and other Sinhalese Buddhist leaders. He spearheaded the Buddhist revival movement, which was a pioneer in Buddhist education. Together, they established the
Buddhist Theosophical Society, with the goal of founding 400 private Bodhi schools and Buddhist colleges, as well as erecting statues of the Arahants Ananda, Mahinda, and Dhammaraja in Sri Lanka.
The Theosophical Society also launched its own publications to promote Buddhism, such as the Sinhalese newspaper, Sarasavisandarasa and the English publication, The Buddhist. As a result of these efforts, the great Vesak festival (commemorating the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and passing) became a public holiday for the community and the voice of Buddhism gained growing and valuable influence within society.
Edited by Prof. Venerable Medagama Nandawansa and Venerable Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
31. The Panadura debate between Christianity (Christian priests) and Buddhism (Bhikkhu Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera and Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera).
Bhikkhu Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera and Colonel Henry Steel Olcott.32.
Anāgarika Dhammapala was a pioneering Sinhalese figure in the Buddhist revival movement. He advocated against foreign imitation (adopting foreign religions, names, and customs), championed social reform, and founded numerous organizations to advance the movement. He began as an interpreter for Colonel Olcott, who traveled across the island to lecture and write many books on Buddhism. Later, Anāgarika Dhammapala went to India and established the Mahā Bodhi Society in 1891, with the goal of reviving Buddhism in both India and Sri Lanka. Drawing on his experience as an interpreter, Dhammapala traveled extensively across Australia, the Americas, Europe, and Asia to advocate for the restoration of sacred Buddhist sites and to popularize the teachings of the Buddha. Near the end of his life, he ordained as a monk in Sarnath, where he had built the majestic and architecturally unique Mulgandha Kuti Vihāra (1930) for the Mahā Bodhi Society.
- Unknown photographer, Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero and Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, Wikimedia Commons.
Mulgandha Kuti Vihāra Temple,
Sarnath, Varanasi, India. Photo taken July 8, 2023.
In Sri Lanka specifically, Venerable Anāgarika and other historical figures like Sir D. B. Jayatillake, F. R. Somnayake, Valisinha Harishchandra, and W. A. de Silva became active members of leading Buddhist associations. These included the Buddhist Theosophical Society (founded in 1880), the Mahā Bodhi Society (1891), the Colombo Young Men’s Buddhist Association (1898), and the Ceylon Buddhist Association (1918). They promoted Buddhist education, rebuilt ancient Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka’s former capitals, and spearheaded social and cultural reforms to foster a sense of pride among Sri Lankans in their religion, language, customs, and culture.
These historical figures not only reorganized Buddhist activities within the country but also played a leading role in sending dhammadutas (Dhamma messengers) and publications abroad. In 1950, the World Fellowship of Buddhists was established to unite all Buddhist nations, and several conferences were organized in the years that followed. During this period, numerous Pāli texts, scriptures, commentaries, and literary works were created by many distinguished monastics and lay Buddhists. Notably, the Pāli Tipiṭaka was translated into Sinhalese, and both an English and a Sinhalese encyclopedia on Buddhism were published.
Statue of Venerable Anāgarika Dhammapala
at Sarnath, Varanasi, India. Photo taken July 8, 2023.
The revival of Buddhism was seen as the revival of the nation. These remarkable figures, who tirelessly worked for the cause of Buddhism, were also national leaders of the Sinhalese people, and their names have been etched in the history of Sri Lanka and the world. In 1948, Sri Lanka regained its independence after 133 years of British colonial rule.33.
In the nineteenth century, a modern Buddhist revival movement emerged on the island of Sri Lanka with the goal of restoring education, culture, and Buddhism to their former glory. At that time, there were reportedly 6,000 Buddhist monasteries across Sri Lanka, home to 15,000 Theravāda monks.34. In 1956–1957, the Colombo Young Men’s Buddhist Association organized Dhamma examinations in which 163,180 children participated.
- Perera, “The Modern Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka,” sec. 47.
34. Ibid.
2.7. THE INTERNATIONAL BUDDHIST FLAG
In the 1880s, the Colombo Committee successfully convinced British authorities to recognize Vesak Poya (the full moon day of Vesak) as a public holiday, effective from May 1885.
The esteemed members of the Colombo Committee, including VenerableHikkaduweSriSumangalaThera(chairman),Venerable Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera, and prominent lay leaders such as Don Carolis Hewavitharana (the father of Anāgarika Dhammapala) and Andiris Perera Dhammagunawardhana (his grandfather), Charles A. de Silva, Peter de Abrew, William de Abrew (Peter’s father), H. William Fernando, N. S. Fernando and Carolis Pujitha Gunawardena (secretary) set out to design a Buddhist flag.35. The flag was officially hoisted for the first time on the Vesak full moon day in May 1885.
The flag features six vertical stripes representing the colors of the aura that emanated from the Buddha’s body upon his enlightenment: blue (nila), yellow (pita), red (lohita), white (odata), and orange (manjestha). The sixth stripe, located at the end, is a combination of these five colors (prabhaswara). The flag symbolizes the unity of all Buddhist races (without regard to skin color) and the inherent potential for all beings to achieve Buddhahood. This Buddhist flag was first hoisted by Venerable Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera at Deepaduththaramaya, Kotahena, on the Vesak full moon day, May 28, 1885.
In the 1880s, Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, an American journalist and founder of the Theosophical Society, observed that the original design of the Buddhist flag—shaped like a long streaming pennant—was impractical for general use. He therefore proposed modifying it to the standard rectangular size and shape of a national flag. In 1889, this revised flag was introduced by Anāgarika Dhammapala and Olcott to Emperor Meiji of Japan, and later to Myanmar and other countries.
- The Maha Bodhi 105, no. 1–3 (January–March 1997): 22–23.
At the meeting of the World Fellowship of Buddhists held in Kandy on May 25, 1950, Dr. Gunapala P. Malalasekera, Dr.
B. R. Ambedkar (India), and U Chan Htoon (Myanmar) were instrumental in successfully proposing that the assembly accept and recognize this as the international Buddhist flag. This became a significant historical moment for the Buddhist world, as the flag officially became the symbol for global Buddhism.
Henry Steel Olcott’s contribution to the Sri Lankan Buddhist flag is recognized on the Ceylon stamp.36.
The international flag of Buddhism.
- Government of Ceylon, Anagarika Dharmapala commemorative postage stamp, 15 cents, issued September 16, 1964 (public domain).
The second World Fellowship of Buddhists conference, held at Hongwanji Temple in Tokyo, Japan in 1952, saw the Buddhist flag proudly hoisted and waved to the acclaim of all societal sectors.
Ever since, the six-colored flag has been reverently used by all Buddhist traditions and schools worldwide as the official, solemn symbol of Buddhism.
2.8. SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM TODAY
According to the national census of 2022, 70.2 percent of the Sri Lankan population identify as Theravāda Buddhists.37. In 1988, nearly 93 percent of the Sinhalese-speaking population of Sri Lanka adhered to Buddhism.38. Many monasteries maintain pirivena (Bodhi schools), which function as private educational institutions providing free instruction in the Dhamma as well as general education (grades 1–11). These monasteries also offer meditation training, Dhamma discourses, and religious services to meet the spiritual needs of the community, such as blessings for well-being, memorial services, weddings, and funerals. Thus, Buddhist temples contribute significantly to education, culture, and social welfare, and as a result, laypeople live in close connection with the Sangha and the monastery. Buddhism in Sri Lanka has been historically preserved and led primarily by the Sinhalese people. Kings, state officials, the monastic community, and lay devotees have all played essential roles in safeguarding, revitalizing, and expanding Buddhist institutions throughout the island.
- Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka, “Census Population Rates in 2022,” https://www.statistics.gov.lk/
38. Department of Census and Statistics, “Census Population Rates in 2022.”
Religious demographics of Sri Lanka.39.
Devotion to the Buddha is deeply woven into Sri Lankan society. In many public spaces, including schools, hospitals, government offices and even at crossroads and street corners, statues of the Buddha, either seated in meditation or enshrined in open-air settings, are erected for the faithful to venerate at any time. Students and laypeople frequently visit temples to pay homage to the Buddha, engage in meditation, and listen to Dhamma teachings. On each full-moon day, known as poya, the entire country observes a public holiday so that people may devote themselves to spiritual practice at the temple.
Statue of Buddha standing in the middle
of Colombo 14 intersection, near Sugatadasa Stadium.
- Lakmal Jayasuriya, Population by Religion, Wikimedia Commons.
In this way, we see that from the time of the Blessed One more than 2,600 years ago, the message of compassion and wisdom has deeply permeated the life of this island nation. The daily practice of morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā), as taught by the Buddha, remains an indispensable part of the spiritual life of Sri Lankans. Buddhism has continued to flourish and over the centuries, has become the state religion of Sri Lanka.
Author Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Bhikkhunī Viên Chân,
Mrs. Viên Phương and Tâm Tuệ Nguyệt in a memorable photo with the Sri Lankan Buddhists at the temple on the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi Tree campus, August 22, 2016.
***
Chapter 3
The Ancient Buddhist Capitals of Anurādhapura and Polonnaruwa
nurādhapura, Polonnaruwa, and Sigiriya form the UNESCO World Heritage “Cultural Triangle” of Sri Lanka. This chapter introduces the two renowned
ancient Buddhist capitals of Anurādhapura and Polonnaruwa, located in the north-central region of Sri Lanka, together with their temples and stūpas. The Lion Rock of Sigiriya, however, will be discussed separately in Chapter 4 under the theme “Sacred Buddhist Rock Mountains.”
3.1. SACRED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF ANURĀDHAPURA
Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya was one of the great ancient Buddhist capitals of the world, situated in the north-central heartland of the island of Sri Lanka. It was the cradle of the illustrious Sinhalese Buddhist civilization. Flourishing as the royal capital of the Kingdom of Lanka from 377 BCE until the end of the dynasty in 1017 CE, Anurādhapura served as the seat of power for nearly thirty successive monarchs over a span of
1,400 years.40.
According to Venerable S. Dhammika, there are several traditional accounts regarding the origin of the name of the ancient capital Anurādhapura.41. The term “Anurādha” is said to have been the name of one of King Pandukābhaya’s ministers. Anurādhapura came to be regarded as a great Buddhist capital, or even as a monastic city, because of the vast number of temples and monasteries, both large and small, constructed within its precincts. Most notably, it was home to the three earliest and most prominent monasteries of Sri Lanka: the Mahāvihāra, the Abhayagiri, and the Jetavana. The Mahāvihāra (the “Great Monastery”) was established by the Arahant Mahinda himself together with the Theravāda community of lay supporters.
In the first century CE, King Kutakannatissa had massive walls three meters high built around the complex, along with a nearby water canal. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein resided in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura for three years to study and practice. In his Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, he described the city in glowing terms, “There are great main streets and smaller side roads, level and even, appearing quite new.”42.
- Anuradhapura Sacred City Sri Lanka,” Ceylon Expeditions, https://www. ceylonexpeditions.com/anuradhapura-sacred-city-sri-lanka
41. Venerable S. Dhammika, Sacred Island: A Buddhist Pilgrim’s Guide to Sri Lanka (Colombo: Champika Printers, 2008), 39.
42. Fa-Hein (Faxian), Buddhistic Kingdoms: Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fâ-Hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399–414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline, trans. James Legge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886), chapter on Ceylon/Anurādhapura.
Map of Sri Lanka.43.
3.1.1. Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi Tree, Anurādhapura (Third Century BCE)
The sacred Bodhi tree in Anuradhapura is known as the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi. This name comes from Sinhala and means “Victorious Holy Great Bodhi Tree.” Since the Buddha sat in meditation beneath this tree for forty-nine days and attained enlightenment, it became known as the Bodhi tree (Sinhala: Bo), the “Tree of Awakening” or “Tree of Wisdom.” The Vietnamese “cây Bồ Đề” is the transliteration of Bodhi tree.
The Buddha himself referred to this tree at Gayā with the following words: “Now, monks, the Tathāgata is the Arahant, the Fully Enlightened One (Arahaṁ, Sammā-Sambuddho). The Tathāgata attained supreme awakening at the foot of the assattha tree (assatthassa mūle abhisambuddho).”44.
43. Sri Lanka Regions Map, Wikimedia Commons.
44. Mahāpadāna Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya 14), in The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya, trans. Maurice Walshe (Boston:
According to the English source Sri Mahā Bodhi: The Sacred Bo Tree on the Amazing Lanka website, the history of the great Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi at the capital city of Anurādhapura is recorded in detail.45.
In 250 BCE, following the arrival of the Arahant Mahinda Thero and his fellow missionaries from India to propagate the Dhamma in Sri Lanka, Emperor Aśoka of India sent his daughter, Bhikkhunī Sanghamittā Therī, to establish the Bhikkhunī Order on the island. She brought with her a branch of the original Bodhi tree from Bodhgayā, the very tree under which the Buddha meditated for forty-nine days and attained enlightenment, as a gift to Sri Lanka. King Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka organized a grand ceremony to receive this sacred branch and had it planted in the Royal Park, Mahā Meghavana Udyanaya in Anurādhapura, then the largest city of Ceylon. From its planting in 249 BCE to the present day, the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi has lived for more than 2,300 years, making it the oldest historically documented living tree in the world with a known human-planted origin.
The transmission of Buddhism and the Bodhi tree from India to Sri Lanka is among the most sacred events in the history of the Sinhala people. The ceremonial planting of the sacred tree was a national event unparalleled in the cultural and religious heritage of Sri Lanka, and its influence endures to this very day. Over the centuries, the tree has grown into a venerable and majestic being, recognized as the oldest historically documented tree in the world. True to the ancient prophecy, from the moment of its planting, the tree has remained flourishing and verdant. Its supple roots, seeking life even in barren rock, spread deep and wide into the earth, just as the spirit of the Bodhi tree penetrated and became firmly rooted in the inner life of the Sinhala people.
Wisdom Publications, 1995), DN, 52. For the Pāli original, see https:// suttacentral.net/dn14/pli/ms (accessed March 21, 2026).
45. Sri Maha Bodhi: The Sacred Bo Tree,” AmazingLanka.com, accessed March 21, 2026, http://amazinglanka.com/wp/sri-maha-bodhi-the-sacred-bo- tree/
The historian H.G. Wells noted:
In Ceylon (Sri Lanka) there grows the oldest historical tree in the world. It is known to have been propagated from the Bodhi tree at Gayā, Bihar, India, and planted in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura in 245 BCE. The tree still lives, watered and carefully tended from that time until now. Pillars are placed to support its heavy branches, preventing them from breaking. The continued existence of this tree reminds us of the brevity and impermanence of human life: generations have passed away, yet the Bodhi tree has endured, silently bearing witness through the ages.46.
The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein recorded in his fifth-century travelogue that he paid homage to the great, luxuriant Bodhi tree at Anurādhapura and spent several years residing and practicing at the Mahāvihāra monastery.
Regarding the historical authenticity of this sacred tree, Emerson Tennent emphasized:
Although it is said that the baobab in Senegal, the eucalyptus in Tasmania, the dragon tree in Oratava, the Wellingtonia in California, and the chestnut on Mount Etna may live from one to five thousand years, such claims are merely conjectural. However ingenious these estimates may appear, they remain speculative. In contrast, the longevity of the Bodhi tree in Ceylon is an established historical fact. Successive dynasties have carefully nurtured and preserved it. The vicissitudes of history through which this tree has passed have been faithfully recorded in the most authentic chronicles known to humankind.47.
After the planting of the sacred Bodhi sapling and the
- H. G. Wells, The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind, rev. ed. (London: Cassell and Company, 1934), 392.
47. Sir James Emerson Tennent, Ceylon: An Account of the Island Physical, Historical, and Topographical with Notices of Its Natural History, Antiquities and Productions, vol. 1 (London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1859), 97–98.
ceremonies associated with it, Queen Anulā (the consort of the sub-king Mahānāga), together with her attendants, went forth into homelessness under the guidance of the Arahant Bhikkhunī Sanghamittā Therī, the daughter of Emperor Aśoka. From that moment, the Bhikkhunī Sangha was formally established in Sri Lanka, flourishing for many centuries. Historical records also note that inspired by their mission to extend the taste of liberation to women in other lands, Sinhalese bhikkhunīs later journeyed across the seas to China, where they helped establish the Bhikkhunī Sangha there during the Yuan Chia era (429 CE).
The Venerable Sanghamittā Therī not only conferred ordination upon Queen Anulā and other royal ladies of noble lineage but also extended ordination to women from all strata of society: aristocrats, merchants, intellectuals, commoners, the impoverished, and even the illiterate. Regardless of social rank, all women were given equal opportunity to enter the monastic order. Through her compassionate efforts, Sanghamittā Therī elevated the status of women, granting them access to the path of holiness and liberation.
The Buddha’s teaching recognizes no distinction of gender, caste, or race. Men and women alike, regardless of social background or ethnicity, may cultivate morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā), and thereby realize the highest fruits of awakening, so long as they follow the Noble Eightfold Path taught by the Blessed One. The Buddha himself, together with Mahāpajāpati Gotamī, the foster mother of the Buddha and first bhikkhunī and the Arahant Therī Sanghamittā compassionately opened the door of purity, peace, and liberation for women.
Through the unwavering devotion, perseverance, courage, and boundless compassion of the early dhammadūtas, such as the Arahant Mahinda Thera and the Arahant Bhikkhunī Sanghamittā, Buddhism was firmly established in Sri Lanka and spread across Asia, including Bactria (now northern Afghanistan and parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) and Central Asia.
From left: Bhikkhunī Viên Quang, Bhikkhunī Viên Chân, Venerable Siri Sumedha Thero (center), Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Mrs. Viên Phương, and Mrs. Tâm Tuệ Nguyệt in front of the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi tree,
Anurādhapura, on August 17, 2016.
The mission of the Arahant Mahinda to Ceylon is vividly illustrated in a celebrated mural at the famed Ajanta Caves in south India, while the story of the Arahant Sanghamittā Therī bringing the sacred Bodhi tree to Ceylon is depicted in a stone bas-relief at Sanchi. In Sri Lanka, particularly at bhikkhunī monasteries, images of Sanghamittā Therī are enshrined and venerated at the entrance, honoring her as the great founding mother of the Bhikkhunī Sangha.
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương (center, ochre robe),
Venerable Bhikkhunī Madulle Vijithananda
(to the left of Venerable Giới Hương), Bhikkhunī Tịnh Châu (far right), together with the community of nuns
in front of the statue of Arahant Bhikkhunī Sanghamittā at Vishakaramaya Temple on July 18, 2023.
3.1.2. Capital of Anurādhapura
Anurādhapura was chosen as the first capital of ancient Ceylon under King Pandukabhaya. During this period, especially with the arrival of the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi tree as a gift from India and the Buddha’s Tooth Relic (enshrined in Kandy), Buddhism assumed a central role, exerting a profound influence on the culture, art, religion, economy, law, governance, society, history, and politics of Sri Lanka. King Devanampiya Tissa and many subsequent monarchs of Ceylon adopted a policy of “righteous governance” (dhamma-rājya), ruling their people through the principles of compassion and wisdom as taught by the Buddha, much like Emperor Aśoka of India, the father of the arahant missionaries Mahinda Thera and Sanghamittā Therī.
Yet during this same era, Anurādhapura was often threatened by invading rulers from south India. Kings and princes of Ceylon, including Dutthagamani, Valagamba, Dhatusena, Gajabahu I, Sena II, and Prince Pandyan, successfully inspired patriotic
spirit and resisted these invasions, regaining sovereignty over the kingdom.48.
As an island nation, Sri Lanka depended primarily on agriculture. Thus, the construction of vast irrigation systems to ensure a water supply in arid regions became one of the greatest achievements of Anurādhapura. Many monarchs, most notably Vasabha and Mahāsena, oversaw the building of great reservoirs (wewa) and the excavation of canals, creating an extensive hydraulic network across the Rajarata region during the Anurādhapura era. The three principal ancient reservoirs, Tissawewa, Nuwarawewa (south of Anurādhapura), and Basawakulama (north of Anurādhapura), sustained agriculture and enhanced the beauty of the capital for nearly two millennia. These irrigation works stand as enduring testimony to the advanced engineering skills of ancient Ceylon.
As with the natural cycles of rise and decline, Anurādhapura eventually fell into disuse and decay. By the thirteenth century, after repeated invasions from south India, the capital was largely abandoned and reclaimed by the forest. Yet some loyal and courageous Sinhalese villagers remained behind to guard the sacred Bodhi tree. They would gather bundles of firewood and light fires around the tree at night to ward off wild elephants that might otherwise damage its leaves. Out of this necessity, a custom arose known as the Daramiti Perahera (Firewood- Gatherīng Festival), a ritual in which villagers collected firewood on a single day to be used for the entire year. This tradition of protecting the Bodhi tree with sacred fire continues even today.
At the sacred site of Anurādhapura, thousands of pilgrims, both domestic and international, gather daily to venerate the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi. As one of the earliest living symbols of the Buddha’s presence in Sri Lanka, this Bodhi tree holds profound spiritual and cultural significance. Pilgrims often request a branch or sapling propagated from the original tree to enshrine at their own temples or monasteries, thereby extending the
48. “Anuradhapura Sacred City Sri Lanka,” Ceylon Expeditions, accessed March 21, 2026, https://www.ceylonexpeditions.com/anuradhapura-sacred-city-sri-lanka
lineage of the sacred Bodhi across the world. Indeed, within the Sri Lankan Buddhist tradition, a monastery or temple is only considered complete when a Bodhi tree is planted on its grounds. For this reason, both Sri Lankan temples on the island and those established abroad make pilgrimages to Anurādhapura to obtain a Bodhi sapling for transplantation.
The white cetiya with its hemispherical dome, together with the Bodhi tree, constitute the quintessential features of Sri Lankan Buddhist architecture. Under the shade of the Bodhi tree, monks, nuns, and lay devotees customarily gather to meditate, chant, and make offerings of flowers, food, and water. In this sacred space, they aspire to receive the spiritual energy radiating from the Enlightened One, the Blessed Master, Sākyamuni Buddha.
Tradition records that in 1929, a deranged individual attempted to cut down the sacred Bodhi tree, but fortunately only one branch was scorched and removed. Again in 1985, during the civil unrest, Tamil militants (the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) launched a brutal assault on worshippers assembled in veneration of the tree, killing 229 innocent devotees. Remarkably, however, the Bodhi tree itself remained unharmed. These events have only deepened the reverence and miraculous aura surrounding this tree of awakening. Throughout history, not only villagers, merchants, students, and scholars, but also nobles, kings, and officials have come to pay homage to this sacred tree. It is especially customary for those assuming high office or celebrating commercial success to seek its blessings. For instance, before commencing his political campaign, the newly elected President Maithripala Sirisena came to meditate and pray beneath the Bodhi tree, a living emblem of enlightenment.
Venerable Siri Sumedha (center), Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương (left), together with the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation, offered prayers beneath the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi at Anurādhapura on July 11, 2023.
The Bodhi leaf has been traditionally employed as a ritual object (Dhammic implement). Devotees often preserve the leaves, retaining their venation, dye them in vibrant colors, and inscribe images of the Buddha upon them, offering such sacred leaves as gifts of the Dhamma to one another.
In local village traditions, the Bodhi tree is also revered as a source of medicinal value. Its heart-shaped leaves are believed to alleviate stomach problems, its fruits are used in the treatment of asthma, its roots are applied for healing ulcers and abscesses, while its expansive shade offers relief during the intense heat of tropical noontides.
For generations, the local inhabitants have borne the honored responsibility of tending the sacred Bodhi tree, continuing this holy stewardship across twenty-three generations, a span of 2,272 years. This uninterrupted guardianship may well constitute one of the most ancient and enduring acts of religious merit (puñña-kamma) in the world.
Such accounts pertain to the sacred Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi of Sri Lanka, before which our delegation had the privilege to undertake pilgrimage, paying homage, offering recitations, and engaging in meditative walking practice.
On July 11, 2023, Vietnamese Buddhists from abroad offered flowers, recited suttas, and paid homage to the sacred Bodhi tree.
3.1.3. Buddhist Ruins in theAncient Capital ofAnurādhapura
Anurādhapura, the first historic capital of Sri Lanka, was founded in the fifth century BCE. Several suburban areas of this ancient city were systematically designated by the king and his ministers as sacred precincts comprising shrines, temples, and monasteries intended primarily for Buddhist worship and ascetic practice.
Since 249 BCE, the sacred Great Bodhi tree (Mahā Bodhi) has stood in Anurādhapura, and as of the year 2023, it is reckoned to be 2,272 years old. It is regarded as the oldest historically documented living tree in the world, revered both in religious devotion and in human cultural heritage.
Seven miles from the Bodhi tree lies the archaeological zone of the Anurādhapura ruins, considered among the most remarkable heritage sites in South Asia. The city of Anurādhapura embodies
a profound sense of sanctity and mystery, reflecting the grandeur of an urban center from the pre-Christian (pre-Common Era) world.
The extensive complex contains an extraordinary array of architectural and archaeological monuments: natural-stone palaces, brick-built monasteries, hemispherical cetiyas (stūpas), majestic Buddha images, imposing assembly halls, landscaped royal gardens, vast irrigation reservoirs, and the ruins of ancient temple foundations. Collectively, these structures represent a rich treasury of religious and cultural wonders, constructed and venerated across the millennia of Anurādhapura’s Buddhist civilization in Sri Lanka.
Burrows Pavilion (Stone Canopy) in Anurādhapura’s Abhayagiri complex. The ancient stone entrance to a sacred Bodhi shrine, restored in the nineteenth century.
At present, several sites in Anurādhapura continue to be venerated as sacred grounds and active places of Buddhist worship. Regular Buddhist ceremonies are conducted, and thousands of pilgrims arrive daily, imbuing the ancient capital with a living sanctity reminiscent of the golden age of early Buddhism. Archaeological excavations are ongoing across the ruins, while ancient foundations and architectural remains are being carefully restored and preserved. Numerous masterpieces
of Buddhist architecture and sculpture, representing the profound cultural achievements of ancient Sri Lankan civilization, were inscribed by UNESCO in 1982 as a World Heritage Site under the title “The Sacred City of Anurādhapura (Ancient Ruins Complex).”
During our pilgrimage, the delegation from Hương Sen Temple visited the following important sites within the Anurādhapura complex:
1. Sri Mahā Bodhi (the Sacred Bodhi tree)
2. Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum
3. Abhayagiri Dagoba (Stūpa)
4. Nuwarawewa Reservoir
5. Isurumuniya Rock Temple
6. Abhayagiri Museum
7. Brazen Palace Monastery (Lohapāsāda)
8. Mirisawetiya Dagoba
9. Royal Palace of Anurādhapura
10. Ruwanweliseya Great Stūpa (Mahāthūpa)
11. Jetavana Dagoba
12. Thuparama Dagoba
13. Aukana Buddha Statue
14. Mihintale Sacred Mountain
15. Alms Hall and Monastic Refectory (Rice Trough)
16. Sandakada Pahana (Moonstone Carvings)
17. Eth Pokuna (Elephant Pond)
18. Kuttam Pokuna (Twin Ponds)
- Samādhi Buddha Statue (Meditating Buddha)
20. Lankārāmaya Dagoba
21. Vessagiri Hermitage
22. Mayura Pirivena Monastery
23. Sārānanda Pirivena Monastery
24. Mirisavetiya Stūpa
25. Issarasamanārāma Monastery
26. Ratna Prasāda Preaching Hall
3.1.4. The Sacred Bodhi Tree (Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi)
According to Indian Buddhist history, the Bodhisattva Gotama (Sanskrit: Gautama) attained supreme awakening beneath the Bodhi tree on the banks of the Nerañjarā River at Bodhgayā in Bihar, India.After forty-nine days of meditative contemplation on the principle of dependent origination (Pāli: paṭiccasamuppāda), he realized Buddhahood and became the Buddha Sākyamuni (Pāli: Siddhattha Gotama). Ever since, the Bodhi tree has been venerated as a living symbol of his enlightenment.
The Sacred Bodhi tree was described as flourishing with verdant branches. On July 11, 2023, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, together with the eleven members of the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation, visited the sacred site.
A branch of this sacred tree at Bodhgayā was brought to Sri Lanka in 236 BCE by the Venerable Therī Arahant Sanghamittā, daughter of Emperor Aśoka (Dhammāsoka), under his royal patronage.49. King Devanampiyatissa had the sapling planted in the royal park, Mahā Meghavana Udyanaya in Anurādhapura, under the guidance of the elder Mahinda Thera, the Buddhist missionary credited with introducing Buddhism to the island. From that time onwards, the people of ancient Ceylon revered the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi as a sacred embodiment of the Buddha’s living presence and radiance.
Recognized as the oldest human-planted tree with a verifiable planting date, the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi was planted in 236 BCE
49. Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, Anuradhapura,” Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Official Website, accessed March 21, 2026, https://www.srimahabodhi.lk/web/
and has thrived for over 2,300 years to the present day. It has been continuously preserved and protected through successive generations, surviving even during periods of south Indian invasions and political turmoil.
From left: Bhikkhunī Viên Quang, Bhikkhunī Viên Chân, Venerable Siri Sumedha Thero,
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Mrs. Viên Phương,
and Mrs. Tâm Tuệ Nguyệt in front of the Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi tree, Anurādhapura, on August 17, 2016.
3.1.5. Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum
The Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum is located on Thuparama Mawatha in Anurādhapura. It is considered one of the oldest museums in Sri Lanka, housed in the former Kachcheri building, situated between the sacred Stūpa Ruwanweliseya (Ruwanweli Mahā Seya) and Lovamahāpaya (Brazen Palace Monastery).50.
The museum contains a rich collection of archaeological artifacts, including Buddha images, statues of deities, coins, jewelry, household and kitchen utensils, and other cultural relics. Among its most significant sections are:
- Anuradhapura Archaeological Museum,” Attractions in Sri Lanka, accessed March 21, 2026, https://www.attractionsinsrilanka.com/travel-directory/ anuradhapura-archaeological-museum/
- The scale model of the Vatadāge Stūpa, an important architectural form of ancient Sri Lanka.
• The Anurādhapura antiquities discovered at Kantaka Chethiya, Mihintale which shed light on the monastic and cultural life of the early Buddhist community.
The Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum.
Pilgrims and visitors can access the museum via the Puttalam– Anurādhapura–Trincomalee highway, as it is located conveniently along Thuparama Mawatha in the sacred city of Anurādhapura.
3.1.6. Abhayagiri Dagoba
The Abhayagiri Dagoba, reaching a height of 380 feet, is the second tallest stūpa in Sri Lanka, originally built by King Valagamba (Vattagamini Abhaya) in the second century BCE.51. This monumental structure was once clad with layers of gilded bronze and glazed dark-colored bricks, which created a striking appearance. With its summit rising to 245 feet, the dagoba became a prominent landmark within the sacred city of Anurādhapura, now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (ranking only after the two great pyramids of Giza in terms
51. “Abhayagiri Dagoba or Abhayagiri Stūpa and Monastery, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka,” Mysrilankaholidays.com, Riolta Lanka Holidays (Pvt) Ltd., accessed March 21, 2026, http://www.mysrilankaholidays.com/abhayagiri-dagoba.html
of ancient monumental scale).
The Abhayagiri Monastery was not only a grand architectural complex but also a distinguished center of Buddhist learning, where doctrinal assemblies were held, engaging diverse Buddhist schools in discussions on the pristine teachings of the Buddha.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation visited Abhayagiri Dagoba on July 11, 2023.
The Chinese monk Fa-Hein visited Abhayagiri in the early fifth century CE and spent two years studying there. During his stay, he copied Buddhist scriptures to bring back to China. His travelogue, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, mentions the Abhayagiri Stūpa as a structure rising 400 feet, adorned with gold, silver, and precious jewels, enshrining at its center a majestic meditating image of the Buddha.52.
Nearby stands the Nuwara Wewa, the largest of three man-made reservoirs (wewa) in Anurādhapura, alongside Basawakkulama (Abhaya Wewa) and Tissa Wewa. Constructed by King Valagamba in the first century BCE, Nuwara Wewa had the capacity to store 50 million cubic meters of water, supporting both agriculture and the livelihood of local inhabitants.
- Fa-Hien, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, trans. James Legge, 102–104, https://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00fahsuoft/page/102/mode/2up
Nuwarawewa Tank, photo taken July 11, 2023.
According to H. Parker (1890s), based on brick measurements analogous to those used in the Abhayagiri Dagoba, the reservoir was likely constructed in the first two decades of the first century BCE, with subsequent restorations in the third and fifth centuries CE.53. The embankment extends three miles in length and thirty-seven feet in height, with a water depth of twenty- three feet, covering a surface area of over 7,000 acres.
3.1.7. Isurumuniya Rock Temple
The Isurumuniya Rock Temple, formerly known as Meghagiri Vihāra, is located in Anurādhapura near the Tissa Wewa reservoir. It was founded in the third century BCE by King Devanampiya Tissa. The temple complex was built in conjunction with a natural cave, whose rock surfaces preserve a remarkable treasury of stone carvings. Among these, the most celebrated is the relief known as the “Isurumuniya Lovers,” noted for its exceptional preservation and refined artistry, which continues to captivate visitors with its vitality and intimacy. Adjacent to the cave stands a white, hemispherical stūpa (cetiya), completing
53. H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon: An Account of the Aborigines and of Part of the Early Civilisation (London: Luzac & Co., 1909). https://archive.org/details/ ancientceylonacc00park
the sacred ensemble of the temple.
The Isurumuniya Rock Temple and the “Isurumuniya Lovers.” Photo taken at the Abhayagiriya Archaeological Museum
July 11, 2023.
3.1.8. Abhayagiriya Archaeological Museum
The Abhayagiriya Archaeological Museum is situated near the Abhayagiri Dagoba and was established to collect, preserve, and display archaeological remains from the sacred city of Anurādhapura, particularly those unearthed in the Abhayagiri Monastery complex.
Abhayagiriya Archaeological Museum.
The museum houses an extensive collection of artifacts, including Buddhist sculptures, ceramics, ornamental objects,
glassware, floor tiles, handicrafts, and jewelry, all discovered during systematic excavations. The establishment of the museum was made possible through funding from the government of China, symbolizing the long-standing friendship between the two nations. This gesture also commemorates the historic visit of the Chinese monk Fa-Hein in the early fifth century CE. Fa- Hein resided for two years at the Abhayagiri Monastery, where he studied, copied, and collected Buddhist scriptures to transmit them back to China.
3.1.9. Brazen Palace Monastery (Lovamahapaya)
To the north of the sacred Bodhi tree lies a monastic complex whose copper-tiled roof earned it the name Brazen Palace Monastery.54. The monastery was originally situated amidst a forest of 1,600 solid stone pillars of grey-yellow hue, arranged in forty rows running lengthwise and crosswise, with forty columns in each row. The Brazen Palace Monastery was said to have possessed nine stories. Each story contained numerous chambers, and each chamber bore a plaque inscribed on gilt bronze.
The original structure was vast, accommodating as many as a thousand monks within its nine tiers. In addition to the main edifice, the complex included a refectory for communal meals and an uposathāgāra (ordination hall) where the monastic community gathered to recite the precepts. What can be seen today is but a modest replica of its former grandeur.
According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the Brazen Palace Monastery was regarded as the highest artistic achievement on the island for nearly a millennium, from 155 BCE until 933 CE (during the reign of King Saddhātissa). Its initial construction was started by King Tissa in the second century BCE, later expanded under King Duṭṭhagāmaṇī with its integration into the Mahāvihāra complex, and finally underwent its last major
54. “Anuradhapura World Heritage Site,” Truly Sri Lanka, https://www.trulysrilanka. com/attractions/anuradhapura-world-heritage-site/
restoration under King Parākramabāhu I.
The Brazen Palace Monastery.
3.1.10. Mirisawetiya Dagoba (Stūpa)
According to the Dīpavaṃsa (Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon), the great Mirisawetiya Dagoba was constructed by King Duṭṭhagāmaṇī (161–137 BCE) within the precincts of the Mahāvihāra. Duṭṭhagāmaṇī, celebrated as the great monarch who defeated the Tamil invaders reigned for thirty years and brought Sri Lanka to a period of political and cultural strength.55.
Tradition holds that while attending a water festival, the king left his royal scepter (kunta) at this site. Upon his return, it was discovered that none could remove the sceptre. Recognizing this as an auspicious sign, the king resolved to build a great dagoba there in honor of the Buddha, which came to be named the Mirisawetiya Dagoba.
In Sinhalese, “mirisawetiya” is derived from “miris vetiya,” meaning “chili pepper.” Popular legend relates that the king had once neglected to offer a chili in the alms food presented to the monks, and thus constructed the dagoba with this name as an act of atonement.
55. Mirisawetiya Dagoba (Stūpa),” Amazing Lanka, accessed March 21, 2026, https://amazinglanka.com/wp/mirisavatiya-dagaba/
The Mirisawetiya Dagoba underwent major restorations in the 1980s and again in 1993. At present, it stands
at a height of 192 feet with a diameter of 141 feet.
3.1.11. Royal Grand Stūpa of Anurādhapura
Less than a mile north of the Thuparama Dagoba lie the foundations of the Royal Palace of Anurādhapura, constructed by King Vijayabahu in the twelfth century.56. This site remains one of the notable archaeological attractions for pilgrims and visitors alike. The stūpa measured 128 feet in width and 216 feet in length. To the south once stood the Dalada Maligawa Stūpa, the first shrine to house the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha in 313 CE, before it was later transferred to the Dalada Maligawa at Kandy in the central highlands of Sri Lanka.
The stūpa was originally constructed of timber, earth, and stone, yet, with the passage of impermanence, the wooden structures deteriorated, leaving only the stone architecture. The remaining stone foundations, rising in solemn dignity, create a rare and striking spectacle for visitors and pilgrims alike.
- “The Royal Palace Stūpa of Anurādhapura,” Tour.lk, accessed March 21, 2026, https://tour.lk/destination/sri-lanka/anuradhapura/the-royal-palace/50/
The foundations of the Royal Palace Stūpa of Anurādhapura.
3.1.12. Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa
The Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa, also known as the Ruwanweli Mahā Seya, Mahā Stūpa, Mahācetiya, the Ratnapāli Stūpa, Precious Stūpa, Swarnamali Stūpa, and Revered Stūpa, is located between the Malwatu Oya River and two ancient artificial reservoirs, Tissa Wewa and Abhaya Wewa (Basawakkulama Wewa), in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura. This magnificent monument was commissioned by King Dutugāmunu (101–77 BCE), regarded as a national hero of Sri Lanka, during the second century BCE. It is considered one of the most monumental and revered structures among the great dagobas of the ancient world.
According to the chronicles, shortly after ascending the throne in 161 BCE, Dutugāmunu initiated the construction of the great stūpa, Ruwanweli. Although many architects submitted proposals, none satisfied the king. Eventually, one architect presented a simple yet profound concept: by pouring a little water into a bowl to create a reflection, he proposed a hemispherical dome modeled on the form of that reflection, an idea that the king approved.
On August 20, 2016, Venerable Siri Sumedha led a meditative circumambulation of the Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa.
On July 11, 2023, the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation carried lotus flowers in their hands and paid homage at the Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa.
The foundation, built of brick and stone, was more than twenty feet deep and reinforced by elephants repeatedly treading the soil to compact it. King Dutugāmunu personally supervised the construction and ensured fair compensation for the laborers. However, as the stūpa neared completion, his health declined. Out of compassion, his brother and successor, King Saddhātissa, had white cloth draped over the unfinished portions so that Dutugāmunu might behold the completed vision of his life’s great aspiration before passing away in peace.
Upon its completion, the Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa was regarded as one of the architectural wonders of its age, measuring 294 feet in diameter at the base and 300 feet in height. By comparison, the contemporaneous Great Stūpa at Sanchi, India, measures 120 feet in diameter and 54 feet in height.
Within the complex is enshrined a celebrated stone Buddha image in meditation posture, dating from the fourth century CE. The stūpa has four stairways oriented to the cardinal directions and includes a foot-washing basin at the main entrance for pilgrims. Ascending the stone steps, devotees reach a large brick-paved terrace. To the right stands an inscription pillar of King Niśśaṅkamalla (reigned from 1187–1196 CE), recording royal donations of gold and jewels to the stūpa and the poor.
Surrounding the stūpa is a striking parapet of gray elephant statues, symbolically in obeisance. Though restored multiple times, the design has preserved its original form.
Today, the snow-white hemispherical stūpa rises 337 feet in height with a circumference of 951 feet, dominating the sacred landscape of Anurādhapura beside the tranquil Malwatu Oya. It remains one of the foremost Sinhalese Buddhist monuments, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The renown of the Ruwanweli Maha Stūpa rests on three main factors: its illustrious builder, King Dutugāmunu, celebrated as both a national hero and the devout son of Queen Vihāra Mahādevī, who was herself revered as a heroine, daughter of King Kelanitissa of Kelaniya,
and consort of King Kavantissa of Ruhuna.
In front of the Ruwanweli Maha Stūpa for a commemorative gathering.
The Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa fulfills a prophecy made by the Arahant Mahinda Thera (304–232 BCE), the revered Indian missionary who brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka. He foretold that a supreme stūpa would one day rise at this very site.
The panoramic view of the Ruwanweli Maha Stūpa appeared solemn and resplendent in its grandeur.
Thirdly, the Mahāvaṃsa, the great chronicle of Sri Lanka, provides detailed records concerning the construction of the Ruwanweli Maha Stūpa under King Dutugemunu. It describes how the Sinhalese Buddhist community frequently gathered for worship; how lay devotees contributed gold, copper, and silver to enshrine the Buddha’s relics, and how King Dutugemunu himself paid daily wages and offered generous gifts to the workers.
The chronicle further notes the establishment of welfare facilities for all categories of laborers: engineers, architects, artisans, craftsmen, masons, and general workers. It also recounts the training and employment of elephants, including the royal war elephant Kandula, in transporting heavy stones for the construction. Moreover, it records the invitations extended to monks, lay devotees, and people of all social strata to participate in the consecration ceremony. Finally, the Mahāvaṃsa states that the devout Buddhist King Dutugemunu, deeply reverent of the Triple Gem, passed away beside the stūpa before its completion.
3.1.13. Jētavanārāmaya Stūpa
The Jētavanārāmaya Stūpa, constructed in the third century BCE by King Mahāsena of Anurādhapura (273–301 BCE) and his son, originally rose to a height of 400 feet with a circular diameter of 656 feet, making it the tallest stūpa in Sri Lanka.57. Upon its completion, the Jētavanārāmaya ranked as the third tallest structure in the ancient world, exceeded only by Egypt’s pyramids.58. Today, it is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
According to tradition, a relic believed to be a belt or girdle strap of the Buddha was once enshrined here. The stūpa also
57. Jethawanaramaya Stūpa,” Tripadvisor, accessed March 21, 2026, https:// www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews-g304132-d3461770-r285417125- Jethawanaramaya_Stupa-Anuradhapura_North_Central_Province.html (tripadvisor.com in Bing)
58. Jetavanaramaya,” Wikipedia, last modified, accessed March 21, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetavanaramaya
housed a monumental standing Buddha statue of thirty-seven feet, set upon a stone lotus pedestal, beneath which reliquaries containing precious gems and relics of arahants were deposited.
The Jētavanārāmaya Stūpa.
During the twelfth century, King Parakramabahu undertook major renovations, and the stūpa was reconstructed to its present height of 233 feet, reduced from its original elevation. Although no longer the tallest monument, it remains one of the largest, with a base area of 2,508,000 sq. ft. An estimated 93.3 million fired bricks were employed in its construction.
Historical records further suggest that the monastery complex once accommodated 10,000 monks of the Sagalika Buddhist sect. The refined architectural and decorative features of Jētavanārāmaya stand as enduring testimony to a significant stage in the development of ancient architectural traditions on the island of Ceylon.
3.1.14. Thuparama Stūpa
The Thuparama Stūpa is regarded as the oldest stūpa in Sri Lanka, constructed shortly after the introduction of Buddhism to the island in 250 BCE.59. According to tradition, the site originally enshrined the Buddha’s collarbone relic during the
- Thuparamaya,” Wikipedia, accessed March 21, 2026
reign of King Devanampiyatissa. Today, the stūpa is situated within the sacred precincts of the Mahāmewna Park.
The Thuparama Stūpa, the first stūpa in Sri Lanka, constructed around 300 BCE during the reign of Emperor Aśoka.
The stūpa is built upon a circular platform and is encircled by four concentric rings of octagonal stone pillars, each ring decreasing in height as it extends outward from the central structure. The massive stone pillars, measuring twenty-two feet, once supported a protective roof above the stūpa, a remarkable feat of stone craftsmanship dating to the sixth century CE. At the entrance stands a finely hewn stone water trough, which, continuously filled from a spout above, served pilgrims visiting the shrine.
Erected in 276 BCE, the Thuparama Stūpa is not only the earliest stūpa in Anurādhapura but also the oldest across the entire island of Sri Lanka. Its original architectural form was that of a hemispherical dome, often likened to a “heap of paddy,” similar to other stūpas such as Abhayagiri, Isurumuniya, and Mirisawetiya. However, subsequent renovations in the nineteenth century altered its form into that of a cylindrical or bell-shaped structure. Commissioned by King Devanampiyatissa, the stūpa was specifically intended to commemorate the introduction of
Theravāda Buddhism to the island of Ceylon.
Front view of the Thuparama Stūpa.
3.1.15. Aukana Buddha Statue
The Aukana Buddha statue, standing at a height of thirty-seven feet, is the tallest ancient monolithic Buddha image in Sri Lanka.60. It is located along the Dambulla–Anurādhapura road, eighteen miles northwest of Dambulla, near the ancient man- made reservoir of Kala Weva.
This masterpiece of ancient stone sculpture, attributed to unknown artisans, is remarkable for its scale and refined execution. The figure rises from a double-petalled lotus pedestal (padmāsana), symbolizing purity and enlightenment. The folds of the monastic robe (cīvara) are rendered with delicate precision, flowing naturally across the body as though in fine silk. The raised right hand, in the gesture of blessing (asisa mudrā), conveys serene grace, while the face radiates a meditative compassion, embodying both tranquility and spiritual authority.
- “Aukana Buddha Statue,” Lakpura, accessed March 21, 2026.
The Aukana Buddha statue masterpiece.
3.1.16. Mihintale Mountain (Hill of Mahinda)
Mihintale, often described as the “cradle of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,” holds paramount importance in the island’s religious and cultural history. It was here, in the third century BCE, that the venerable monk Mahinda Thero, son of Emperor Aśoka of India, first introduced the Buddha’s teachings to Sri Lanka, marking a transformative moment in the establishment of Theravāda Buddhism.
A broad stone staircase of 1,840 steps leads pilgrims to the summit of Mihintale. Resting platforms and stone walls flank the ascent, offering spaces for repose during the climb. Reaching the summit is both a physical and spiritual endeavor, rewarded by panoramic views of Anurādhapura and its surrounding countryside. At the base of the mountain, numerous monastic complexes have been established, where resident monks and novices engage in study and practice.
Mihintale Rock, a place to honor Arahant Mahinda Thero.61.
Each year, during the full moon (poya) day of Poson, typically in June, thousands of devotees from across the island gather at Mihintale to commemorate the momentous arrival of Buddhism, as brought by the Arahant Mahinda Thero. This annual festival remains one of the most significant religious observances in the Sri Lankan Buddhist calendar.
3.1.17. Alms Hall and Kitchen
Leaving the great Brazen Palace Monastery (Lohapāsāda) and following the northern road, pilgrims encounter the foundations of an ancient refectory on the right-hand side. These remains once formed part of the great Mahāvihāra monastic complex in Anurādhapura. In former times, many resident monks of the sacred capital could not rely solely on daily almsrounds (piṇḍapāta) for sustenance. Therefore, large refectories were established within the monastery grounds, where food was distributed systematically. Monks received wooden tokens that served as meal passes, which they would present to obtain their daily rations.
61. Uthpala97, Mihintale Peak Sri Lanka, Wikimedia Commons.
The refectory at Mihintale is situated on a rock terrace, measuring 14 by 77 feet, paved with granite slabs. Fourteen rows of stone pillars once supported its roof. The entire complex included not only the dining hall but also kitchens, storerooms, and massive troughs for storing rice and gruel. Within the courtyard lay water reservoirs such as the Nāga Pokuna (Cobra Pond), as well as covered drainage channels.
The courtyard reservoirs.
Proceeding along the main path, one reaches a large rectangular stone-paved courtyard with a colonnaded veranda that functioned as a communal dining space. The presence of stone conduits and water channels shows the sophisticated facilities provided for monks to wash their hands and alms bowls after meals.
Particularly striking is a massive stone trough, carefully assembled from perfectly joined slabs to resemble a great boat. According to the Mahāvamsa chronicle, such vessels were known as “rice boats” (buth-oruwa). After rice was cooked, it was poured into the boat-like trough, from which monks would be served as they filed past in orderly sequence, each carrying his bowl. One such trough is said to have been able to provide 3,800 bowls, enough to offer alms to 3,800 monks at a single meal.
3.1.18. Sandakada Pahana (Moonstone) of Anurādhapura
The Sandakada Pahana, or Moonstone, is a semi-circular slab of granite, intricately carved with concentric bands of symbolic motifs.62. It was a distinctive architectural feature of ancient Sri Lankan entrances, placed at the foot of stairways or thresholds during the post-Anurādhapura period. Considered one of the finest achievements of ancient Sinhalese stone artistry, the moonstone embodies both decorative beauty and profound religious symbolism.
The moonstone steps.
Most moonstones depict successive rings of motifs: lotus petals, swans, elephants, lions, horses, and bulls, each arranged in flowing sequence. Venerable Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero explained the deeper meaning of these designs as follows:
Outer band: ornamental patterns symbolizing the world of the five sensual desires (pañca kāmaguṇa).
Second band: a procession of animals (elephants, horses, lions) signifying the endless cycle of birth, decay, and death within saṃsāra.
Third band: flames, representing the consuming fires of greed,
- “Sandakada Pahana Anuradhapura (Moonstone),” Attractions in Sri Lanka,
accessed March 21, 2026.
hatred, and delusion (rāga, dosa, moha).
Fourth band: flying swans, symbolizing purity and the transcendence of worldly craving, pointing towards liberation.
Fifth band: foliage and climbing vines, signifying vitality and the arduous yet fertile path of spiritual practice.
Central lotus: the ultimate symbol of enlightenment, purity, and the liberated realms of noble monks and practitioners.
Thus, the moonstone not only served as a threshold to sacred spaces but also reminded devotees, with every step, of the Buddhist vision of samsaric bondage and the path to liberation.
3.1.19. Eth Pokuna (Elephant Pond)
The Eth Pokuna, or Elephant Pond, is an immense ancient reservoir located north of the Abhayagiri and Lankārāmaya Stūpas.63. Measuring 522 feet in length, 173 feet in width, and 31 feet in depth, it could hold up to 2.65 million cubic feet of water. The pond once supplied water to 5,000 resident monks of the Abhayagiri monastery and surrounding communities, serving for both daily necessities and ritual functions. Its hydraulic system was fed by the Periyamkulama tank through a network of subterranean conduits. Remarkably, portions of these underground channels, built from carefully cut stone blocks, are still visible today, testifying to the advanced engineering skills of ancient Sri Lanka.
- “Eth Pokuna (Elephant Pond),” AmazingLanka.
The Abhayagiri pond (Eth Pukuna Elephant Pond).64.
3.1.20. Kuttam Pokuna (Twin Ponds)
The Kuttam Pokuna, or Twin Ponds, dating to the eighth century CE, are situated south of the Abhayagiri Monastery, the second of the three great monastic complexes of the Buddhist capital Anurādhapura, where thousands of monks resided and regularly used the ponds for bathing and washing.65.
The larger pond, measuring 132 feet in length, was constructed first, while the smaller one, ninety-one feet in length, was added later. Both ponds are fifty-one feet in width and are equipped
with stairways at each end as well as steps around the sides, enabling simultaneous access for many users.
At the far end of the ponds, a sophisticated filtration system can be observed: as water entered, the first chamber filtered out twigs and leaves; in the second chamber, sediment was allowed to settle before the water finally flowed into the pond through
64. Amanderson2, Eth Pokuna, Anuradhapura, Wikimedia Commons.
65. The first three ancient monasteries in Sri Lanka were Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana.
a dragon-headed (nāga) spout. Nāgas, revered mythological beings believed to inhabit deep waters, were often carved near conduits, fountains, and water channels.
Water from the smaller pond was conveyed into the larger one through an underground pipeline near the base. After use, wastewater was carefully diverted to adjacent rice fields. Near the northwestern corner of the pond, there is a stone spout where people could wash their feet.
The Kuttam Pokuna (Twin Ponds).
The Kuttam Pokuna (Twin Ponds) are among the most beautiful bathing tanks in Sri Lanka.66. Surrounded by carved granite, they belong to the ancient kingdom of Anurādhapura and are regarded as a remarkable achievement in the fields of hydraulic engineering and the architectural creativity of the ancient Sinhalese.
3.1.21. Samadhi Buddha Statue (Meditation Buddha)
From the Abhayagiri Stūpa, continuing westward along the road, one encounters from a distance, the serene and exquisite Samadhi Buddha statue carved in dolomitic marble. This statue, measuring 7.3 feet in height and dated to the third century
66. “The Twin Ponds (Kuttam Pokuna),” The Miracle Island.
CE, is possibly the very image referred to by Fa-Hein and occasionally mentioned in the chronicles as the “Great Stone Buddha.” Excavations suggest that it was originally one of four statues placed with their backs against the Bodhi tree within the Abhayagiri monastic complex.
The Samadhi Buddha statue.
The Buddha is portrayed in a state of tranquil composure, seated in the meditation posture (dhyāna mudrā), a pose directly associated with his enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree by the Nerañjarā River. The statue was rediscovered in 1886 at its present location with the nose broken; the nasal bridge was subsequently reconstructed.
Notably, the Samadhi Buddha exhibits three distinct facial impressions depending on the viewing angle. Seen from the right, the countenance conveys a subtle sadness; from the left, it radiates a gentle smile and from the front, it presents a balanced serenity. The eyes are inlaid with crystal.
This dolomitic marble sculpture is regarded as one of the most refined masterpieces of stone carving from the Anurādhapura period.
3.1.22. Lankārāmaya Stūpa (Sīlasobha Khandaka Cetiya)
The Sinhalese believe that the Lankārāmaya Stūpa has stood
for more than two millennia.67. Tradition recounts that the year 103 BCE was a decisive one for King Walagamba (also known as Vattagamini Abhaya) of Anurādhapura. At that time, the kingdom was attacked by foreign invaders, compelling the king to take refuge in a place called Sīlasobha Khandaka. From this sanctuary, he reorganized his forces, successfully repelled the enemy, and in the very same year ascended the throne of the island.
Sīlasobha Khandaka thus remained deeply etched in the king’s memory, both as a haven of safety and as the starting point of his political career. Out of gratitude, he commissioned a stūpa there, naming it the Sīlasobha Khandaka Cetiya. Architecturally, this monument took the form of a hemispherical dome, resembling the Thuparama, the first stūpa erected in Sri Lanka after the introduction of Buddhism to the island in 250 BCE.
Lankārāmaya Stūpa (Sīlasobha Khandaka Cetiya).
The Sīlasobha Khandaka Cetiya was constructed with eighty- eight stone pillars supporting a domed roof, measuring forty- five feet in diameter and rising ten feet above the ground. Within
its precincts stood several fractured Buddha statues, a stone basin used for washing the feet before entering the main shrine,
67. “The Lankārāmaya Stūpa,” Lakpura, accessed March 24, 2026.
and the remains of broken stone columns scattered across the
spacious courtyard.
Today, the stūpa has been restored, and its original name, Sīlasobha Khandaka Cetiya, has been replaced with the simpler title “Lankārāmaya.”
3.1.23. Vessagiri Hermitage Caves
Vessagiri Hermitage Caves, also known as Issarasamanārāma, is a rock cave hermitage once inhabited by numerous Buddhist ascetics. It lies half a mile south of Isurumuniya, forming part of the archaeological ruins of Anurādhapura, one of the ancient Buddhist capitals of Sri Lanka. The origins of this site date back to the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa (mid-third century BCE) and continued to expand until the reign of King Kāsyapa (473–491 CE). Over time, Vessagiri became an ideal monastic settlement, providing residence and a place of meditation for some five hundred monks.
The Vessagiri Rock Hermitage.68.
The caves were hewn directly out of natural rock formations, with construction relying upon locally available materials. What visitors see today are only massive, bare stones lying in
68. Michael Gunther, Rock Shelters, Vessagiri, Wikimedia Commons.
heaps, for much of the quarried stone was later removed and repurposed elsewhere. Inscriptions in the ancient Brahmi script, engraved above the caves, record the names of donors who had offered these dwellings to the Sangha.
3.1.24. Mayura Pirivena Monastery
The ruins of an ancient monastery known as Mayura Pirivena have been discovered to the southwest of the sacred Bodhi tree (Jaya Sri Mahā Bodhi). During the Anurādhapura era, this site was one of the principal training centers within the monastic complex of the Mahāvihāra. According to ancient records, the Mayura Pirivena was established by King Buddhadāsa (340–368 CE) and is also remembered as the residence of the eminent Indian scholar-monk Buddhaghosa Thera during his sojourn in Ceylon.
The Mayura Pirivena Monastery.69.
Buddhaghosa, the great Theravāda commentator of the fifth century, came to Sri Lanka at a time when the exegetical works on the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) in India had been lost. His purpose was to study the Sinhalese commentaries preserved at the Mahāvihāra of Anurādhapura. The monks of the Mahāvihāra had carefully safeguarded a vast collection of these explanatory
69. Chananand, Mayura Pirivena, Wikimedia Commons.
texts, which provided the essential material for Buddhaghosa’s translations and critical studies.
His writings are marked by clarity, rigor, and systematic reasoning, shaping the standard interpretation of the Theravāda scriptures from at least the twelfth century onward. For this reason, both Western scholars and Theravādans alike have honored Buddhaghosa as the most influential commentator in the Theravāda tradition.
In his description, Buddhaghosa portrayed the Mayura Pirivena as “adorned with solemn dignity, endowed with natural splendor, shaded by cool groves, and abundantly supplied with water.”70. Today, only a few stone pillars of the Mayura Pirivena remain visible, while other parts of the structure are believed to lie buried beneath a nearby wooden house, as shown in the accompanying illustration.
3.1.25. Sārānanda Pirivena Monastery
Along the northern road, before reaching Issaramuni, pilgrims encounter the modern Sārānanda Pirivena Monastery, distinguished by a serene Buddha image seated upon a massive rock.
In ancient times, the term pirivena denoted a monastic residence or meditation cell; today it refers to a monastic college where bhikkhus pursue higher learning. The present Sārānanda Pirivena is a spacious and well-equipped modern institution, providing residence and training for several hundred monks.
It also offers guest facilities for both local and international visitors. As such, the monastery serves not only as a place for
- Buddhaghosa’s description of the Mayura Pirivena (the monastery where he is believed to have resided while composing his commentaries in Anuradhapura). The quoted passage is a slightly paraphrased or variant English rendering of the original description. A very close and commonly cited version reads: “beautifully appointed, agreeably endowed, with cool shade and with an ample water supply.”
veneration and study, but also as a valuable site for exploring the rich cultural and Buddhist heritage of ancient Sri Lanka.
The Sārānanda Pirivena Monastery.
3.1.26. Mirisavetiya Stūpa
Following his victory over the south Indian invader Elāra, King Dutugemunu (161–137 BCE) commemorated this triumph by constructing the hemispherical stūpa known as Mirisavetiya in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura.
The beautiful white Mirisavetiya Stūpa.71.
According to tradition, on one auspicious day the king went to bathe in the Tissa Wewa tank, leaving his royal elephant tethered nearby. After his bath, as he prepared to return to the palace, the elephant refused to move from the spot. Interpreting this as a favorable omen indicating the sanctity of the ground, King Dutugemunu ordered a stūpa to be erected there.
Over the centuries, the Mirisavetiya fell into ruin through the effects of time and weather. Yet successive kings and faithful donors restored it again and again, so that today it stands renewed in majesty as a venerable monument of Sri Lanka’s Buddhist devotion.
3.1.27. Issarasamanārāma Monastery (Isurumuniya)
The Issarasamanārāma Monastery is one of the ancient monastic foundations of Anurādhapura, established by King Devānampiyatissa to commemorate the place where the Venerable Mahinda conferred the monastic ordination upon Prince Arittha, together with five hundred lay followers.72. At
71. Bergentroll, Mirisawetiya Vihara, Wikimedia Commons.
72. Mahāvaṃsa (Mhv.) 20.14; 19.66; Issarasamanārāma,” Pāli Canon Online,
this historic site, eight saplings of the sacred Bodhi tree of Anurādhapura were planted, and these trees have since grown into great, flourishing specimens.
Set beside a tranquil reservoir and natural rock formations, Issarasamanārāma offers a landscape of remarkable beauty and serenity. From the nineteenth century onward, the monastery has formed part of the Royal Pleasure Gardens of Anurādhapura, encompassing some thirty-five acres. On the rock face above the rear left corner of the pond, carvings of elephants appear as though they are bathing in the water, while above them the stones are naturally arranged in the likeness of a man on horseback.
Within the monastery grounds stands a small museum, housing the celebrated sculpture known as “The Lovers.” This well- preserved work depicts a couple adorned with large ear ornaments, representing a style of Sri Lankan art popular between the sixth and eighth centuries. Adjacent to the monastery is the Royal Park, featuring a goldfish pond, numerous flowerbeds, climbing vines, and ancient subterranean water reservoirs.
3.1.28. Ratna Prasāda Lecture Hall
The Ratna Prasāda Lecture Hall, part of the Abhayagiri Monastery, was constructed by King Kanittha Tissa in the first century CE. According to the Mahāvaṃsa chronicle, the building was destroyed during the Dravidian invasions around the eighth century and was later restored under Kings Mihindu II and Mihindu IV. As seen today, only the raised foundation, stone columns, statues, and two guardian deities (muragala) at the entrance remain.
The name “ratna” means “jewel,” while “prasāda” connotes “peaceful dwelling;” thus the Ratna Prasāda was regarded as a jewel-like sanctuary of peace where monks gathered for the fortnightly recitation of the monastic code (uposatha), as well
accessed March 23, 2026, http://www.Pālikanon.com/english/Pāli_names/i_/ issarasamanaaraama.htm
as for meditation. At the center of the main hall once stood a stone image of the Buddha. At its gateway, two striking guardian figures were placed to symbolically protect the Triple Gem. The refined artistry of these guardian deities reflects the remarkable craftsmanship and aesthetic sensibility of ancient Sinhalese architecture.
Guardian deities (muragalas)
at the entrance of the Ratna Prasāda Lecture Hall.
3.1.29. Visitor Information for Anurādhapura Distance to Anurādhapura:
Colombo: 130 miles
Kandy: 90 miles
Colombo International Airport: 109 miles
Transportation:
Daily direct train services are available from Colombo Fort to Anurādhapura (air conditioned, second-class, and third-class).
Public bus routes to Anurādhapura include Numbers 15/57 and 87; from Kandy, Route No. 43. Private luxury buses also operate on most major routes.
Climate: Average temperature 82°F
Accommodation: Both star-class hotels and budget lodgings are available in Anurādhapura.
3.2. SACRED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF POLONNARUWA
3.2.1. Ancient Capital of Polonnaruwa
According to the history of Sri Lankan Buddhism, from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, the city of Polonnaruwa became the island’s second capital, succeeding Anurādhapura.73. This shift occurred under the influence of the South Indian Chola dynasty (tenth century), King Vijayabāhu of Sri Lanka (eleventh century), and King Parākramabāhu (twelfth–thirteenth centuries). The new capital flourished as both a vibrant center of commerce and a stronghold of Theravāda Buddhism.
Throughout the tenth century, Ceylon was wracked by continual civil wars as rival factions struggled for power. South India exploited this instability by launching successive invasions. In 954 CE, King Sena IV ascended the throne and transferred the capital to Polonnaruwa, a major eastern city, strategically more secure from foreign incursions. Two of the most illustrious monarchs of Ceylon, Vijayabāhu I and Parākramabāhu I, established their rule at Polonnaruwa. Both were powerful patrons of the Buddhist faith, commissioning numerous monastic complexes and stūpas, many of whose foundations are still visible today. Another significant ruler, Nissankamalla, further contributed by repairing, restoring, and expanding
- Polonnaruwa is recognized by UNESCO as a world heritage site. https://www.srilankaview.com/polonnaruwa.htm
several earlier shrines and monuments.
Like the former capital of Anurādhapura, Polonnaruwa ranks among the best-preserved ancient cities in the world. It is renowned for itsabundant Buddhistmonuments, including stūpas, monasteries, statues of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and guardian deities, as well as the impressive archaeological remains of royal architecture, such as ruined palaces, temples, menageries, royal bathing pools, and landscaped gardens. Scattered across a broad north-south axis, the artistic masterpieces of Polonnaruwa bear witness to its cultural zenith. In 1982, UNESCO recognized the ancient city as a World Heritage Site.
Polonnaruwa area, Sri Lanka.74.
By the early thirteenth century, however, Polonnaruwa’s glory had begun to fade. Decline set in, and the rulers of Sri Lanka once again shifted the capital, this time to Colombo on the western coast, where it has remained to the present day.
3.2.2. Sacred Monuments of Polonnaruwa
The principal archaeological sanctuaries of Polonnaruwa visited
74. Uwe Dedering, Sri Lanka Districts: Polonnaruwa, Wikimedia Commons.
by the Hương Sen Monastery Pilgrimage Delegation include the following:
1. Royal Palace of King Parākramabāhu
2. Royal Audience Hall of King Parakramabahu
3. Parakrama Samudra Reservoir
4. Hindu Śhiva Devale No. 1
5. Thuparama Stūpa
6. Vatadage Circular Relic House
7. Nissanka Lata Maṇḍapaya Meditation Hall
8. Satmahāl Prasāda Seven-Story Tower
9. Gal Potha (Stone Book) of King Nissanka Malla
10. Hatadage Stūpa
11. Gal Vihāra Rock Temple
12. Pabulu Vihāra Stūpa
13. Hindu Śhiva Devale No. 2
14. Rankot Vihāra Stūpa: Golden Pinnacle Relic
15. Kiri Vihāra White Stūpa
16. Lankātilaka Buddha Statue
17. Lankātilaka Image House
18. Demala Mahā Seya: The Tamil Dagoba
19. Nelum Pokuna: The Lotus Pond
20. Tivanka Buddha Image House
21. Ancient Pothgul Vihāra Library
22. Medirigiriya Vatadage Circular Relic House
- Alahana Parivena Monastic Hospital
24. Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum
25. Visitor Information for Polonnaruwa
3.2.3. Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu
Upon entering the Polonnaruwa complex, the very first monument encountered is the Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu I (1153– 1186). Although today it stands only as remnants of high brick walls and a reddish foundation, in its prime it was a remarkably impressive structure, rising to a height of 102 feet and extending forty-three feet in length, with fifty chambers supported by thirty stone pillars. One can imagine, in bygone days, a magnificent royal palace soaring seven stories high in splendid grandeur.75. To the left of the palace are granite stairways leading to the upper floors, which the Culavamsa records as a resplendent seven-tiered edifice.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation visiting the Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu on August 12, 2016.
- Guard stone (Muragala) at the Ratnaprasada (“Jewel Palace”), Roots Abroad Travel, June 2022, https://rootsabroadtravel.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Guard- stone-or-Muragala-at-the-Ratnaprasada-or-%E2%80%98Jewel-palace.jpg (accessed 26 March 2026).
The Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu, recognized by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage Site.
Photo taken on August 12, 2016.
Outside the palace lay the Royal Pleasure Garden and further on, the royal bathing pool known as Kumara Pokuna. Water, perfumed with fragrant oils, was channeled into a sturdy stone basin, ensuring coolness throughout the year, even during the height of summer. The garden also featured an intricate system of waterspouts resembling natural clouds sprinkling rain.
The architectural techniques of the Polonnaruwa period were similar to those of Anurādhapura, though here a greater use of lime mortar and brick construction is evident.
At the entrance to the Royal Palace
and the Gal Vihāra rock shrine, August 12, 2016.
3.2.4. Royal Audience Hall of King Parakramabahu
Entering the palace complex from the south, one arrives at the Royal Audience Hall. Time and the elements have taken their toll, leaving today only a raised stone platform adorned with intricately carved pillars.76. At the head of the stone stairway leading up to this hall, an inscription designates the site as the “Public Assembly Hall,” where the king received his subjects and listened to their petitions and requests.
The hall comprised a three-tiered pavilion with a stairway on the northern side. Along the walls are exquisite carvings in bas-relief of elephants, lions, and dwarfish figures, skillfully executed with striking detail. The structure is supported by four rows of columns, each consisting of twelve pillars, all decorated with finely incised motifs.
The outer parapet is adorned with elaborate carvings, including a procession of elephants and two majestic lions flanking the stone gateway. Such features attest to the original grandeur and sturdiness of the hall, reinforced by numerous supporting pillars beneath the roof. This is regarded as one of the most remarkably well-preserved architectural monuments within the royal palace complex. Truly, it inspires both admiration and wonder that such a monumental edifice was constructed in an era without advanced technological resources.
- “Council Chamber of King Parakramabahu,” Attractions in Sri Lanka, accessed March 26, 2026, https://www.attractionsinsrilanka.com/travel-directory/council- chamber-of-king-parakramabahu
Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu, ancient city of Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.77.
Built by King Parakramabahu 1 (1153-1186 AD) to hold the tooth relic of Lord Buddha.78.
The enclosing wall of the Royal Audience Hall of King Parakramabahu remains intact, embellished with delicate ornamental carvings.
3.2.5. Parakrama Samudra Reservoir
One of the most striking features of Polonnaruwa is the Parakrama Samudra (Sea of Parakrama), an expansive reservoir covering over six square miles, stretching nine miles in length, forty feet high, and twenty-six feet deep. Constructed under the reign of King Parakramabahu I, the reservoir bears his name in
77. Nahid Sultan, Royal Palace of King Parakramabahu, Wikimedia Commons.
78. RANJU1991, Tooth Relic Temple of Parakramabahu I, Wikimedia Commons.
tribute.79.
Sri Lanka is marked by two principal monsoon seasons, each lasting three months, while the remainder of the year is typically hot and arid, interrupted only by occasional thunderstorms generated by nocturnal heat. Such climatic conditions often resulted in chronic water shortages, severely affecting farmers whose livelihoods depend entirely on agriculture. To counter this, the island developed intricate networks of irrigation canals, ensuring a steady supply of water to surrounding rice fields and thus enabling year-round cultivation. The creation of massive reservoirs such as the Parakrama Samudra was a crucial solution to both water storage and regulation.
The canals of the Parakrama Samudra encircle Polonnaruwa and its environs, serving not only as an irrigation system but also, in antiquity as a defensive moat against invading forces. This irrigation infrastructure transformed Polonnaruwa into a flourishing rice-producing center of ancient Ceylon.
Within the reservoir lies Dipuyyana, an island garden situated on gently sloping red earth. King Parakramabahu, enamored of this serene landscape, selected Dipuyyana as the site for his pleasure garden. There he constructed a royal palace, residential quarters, and a great hall, enhancing its beauty as a retreat amidst the vast waters of the reservoir.
- Tours Lanka Travel Directory, “Ancient City of Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka,” ToursLanka, accessed March 23, 2026, https://www.tourslanka.com/things-to- do/ancient-city-polonnaruwa-sri-lanka/
King Parakrama’s Sea is a shallow reservoir, consisting of five separate reservoirs connected by narrow channels in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.80.
3.2.6. Hindu Shiva Devale No. 1
The first Hindu Shiva Devale, dating from the thirteenth century, is located on the southern side of the complex.81. Its presence highlights the religious coexistence of Buddhism and Hinduism in Polonnaruwa, where a Hindu temple stood in close proximity to Buddhist stūpas.
Remarkable for its enduring solidity, the temple was built of carefully fitted stone blocks that interlock with striking precision, producing walls both sturdy and graceful in appearance. Although its vaulted roof has collapsed, excavations uncovered fine bronze and ceramic artifacts, now displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Polonnaruwa.
- Nethmi Gunasekera, Parakrama Samudra, Wikimedia Commons.
81. “Shiva Devale,” Lakpura, accessed March 26, 2026, https://lakpura.com/ shiva-devale-no-1
The Shiva Devale Temple remains intact.
3.2.7. Thuparama Stūpa
The Thuparama Stūpa is one of the few brick structures attributed to King Parakramabahu I (1153–1186), though some sources ascribe its construction to King Vijayabahu I (1070– 1110), that has survived in a remarkably intact state for over nine centuries.82.
The walls measure roughly seven feet in thickness, and the interior once housed a seated stone Buddha figure in deep meditation, though it’s now shattered and fragmented.
Tradition holds that the eyes of this statue were once inlaid with precious gems. The windows were ingeniously designed to allow sunlight to fall upon these gems, creating a radiant illumination that lit up the entire shrine, an architectural innovation both aesthetic and practical.
The arched vaults at the front of the stūpa remain well preserved, while tropical rains are skillfully channeled into gutters running along the curved lines of the structure. The stūpa is further embellished with decorative carvings of animals reminiscent of medieval European iconography, including dragons, serpents,
- “Thuparamaya (Anuradhapura),” LankaPradeepa, last updated January 14, 2023,
https://www.lankapradeepa.com/2020/02/thuparamaya-anuradhapura.html
elephants, and birds.
Thuparamaya is the first Buddhist temple in Sri Lanka.
Located in the sacred area of Mahamewna Park, the Thuparamaya Stūpa is the earliest dagoba to be constructed in the island, dating back to the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa.83.
3.2.8. Vatadage Circular Relic House
The Vatadage Circular Relic House (stūpa), constructed during the Polonnaruwa period, enshrines four Buddha images facing the cardinal directions: east, west, south, and north, each approached by broad stone stairways.84. The serene composure of the seated Buddha statues radiates a profound dignity and tranquility. Encircling the stūpa is an exquisitely decorated wall with floral motifs, along with three concentric circular rows of stone pillars surrounding the shrine. Between these pillars are elegantly carved stone screens adorned with floral designs.
- Luherath, Thuparama Dagaba, Wikimedia Commons.
84. ToursLanka Travel Directory, “Situated in Polonnaruwa,” ToursLanka, accessed March 23, 2026, https://www.tourslanka.com/things-to-do/situated- in-polonnaruwa/
From left: Bhikṣuṇī Viên Bảo, Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Śrāmaṇerī Viên Lành, and Mrs. Viên Đào visiting the Vatadage Circular Stūpa, Medirigiriya, July 12, 2023.
Moonstone carvings (sandakada pahana) decorate the entrances, the grounds and the pathways, while the outermost ring of columns with a diameter of fifty-nine feet, provides additional protection. Large stone slabs, still in strong condition, enclose the stūpa, interspersed with statues of attendant goddesses, lending the structure an aura of mythical antiquity. This circular design, with Buddha images facing all four directions, is a rare architectural form in Sri Lanka.
Interior view of the Vatadage Circular Stūpa, July 12, 2023.
3.2.9. Nissanka Lata Mandapaya Meditation Hall
According to the Culavamsa, King Nissanka Malla (1187– 1196) built the Nissanka Lata Mandapaya as a private retreat for meditation and as a shrine for the Tooth Relic of the Buddha.85. The stone pavilion is rectangular, measuring 34 by 28 feet, with a single entrance and enclosed by a fence of cone-topped stone columns.
At its center stands a teaching platform with a small stūpa, surrounded by eight stone pillars designed to support the roof. The tops of these pillars are carved with octagonal lotus motifs. It is likely that the king and members of the royal family often sat around the platform to listen to sermons, meditation instructions, or chanting delivered by monks.
- Culavamsa (Geiger trans.), ch. 80 (or 81 in some numberings), describing the reign of Niśśaṅkamalla (Nissanka Malla, 1187–1196). The chronicle credits the king with constructing the Niśśaṅka-latā-maṇḍapa (Nissanka Lata Mandapaya) in the Dalada Maluwa area of Polonnaruwa as a pavilion for listening to the chanting of protective Buddhist texts (piriths).
From left: Mrs. Viên Lệ, Śrāmaṇerī Viên Lành, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Bhikṣuṇī Viên Bảo,
and Bhikṣuṇī Viên Đạo visiting the Nissanka Lata Mandapaya, July 12, 2023.
The Nissanka Lata Mandapaya is a unique architectural monument, distinguished by lotus motifs carved in relief upon
granite columns. An inscription on a nearby stone records that King Nissanka Malla used this pavilion as a sacred site for Buddhist recitation ceremonies performed in memory of the deceased.
The eight granite pillars are arranged in two rows of four, each rising to a height of 8 feet 4 inches. Each column is crowned with a bud-like lotus carving, while the shaft is intricately designed to resemble the stem of a living lotus plant. Unlike the straight circular columns typical of this period, these pillars are artistically curved at three points. According to the archaeologist Senarath Paranavitana, the lotus pillars of the Nissanka Lata Mandapaya represent one of the most distinctive features of ancient Sri Lankan architecture.
The eight lotus columns of the Nissanka Pavilion, July 12, 2023.
3.2.10. Satmahāl Prasāda Seven-Story Tower
The Satmahāl Prasāda, or Seven-Story Tower, located at the northeastern corner of the Polonnaruwa archaeological
complex, is a stepped pyramid dating to the twelfth century.86. The monument consists of seven tiers crowned with a square pinnacle, with each level adorned with a niche enshrining a deity. This seven-story architectural style is often regarded as a smaller replica of the Kukut Stūpa at Lamphun, Thailand, and bears stylistic resemblances to Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Venerable Siri Sumedha, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, and the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation visiting the Satmahāl Prasāda, August 12, 2016.
King Parakramabahu I (1123–1186) is credited with constructing this brick tower within the precincts of the great Buddhist monasteries and stūpas. The tower was built in multiple stages with stone and brick, each level containing decorative
86. Wikipedia contributors, “Satmahal Prasada,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, last modified March 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satmahal_Prasada
carvings and recessed shrines. The ground floor includes an entrance passage, while the exterior is coated with plaster and embellished with ornamental motifs on all four faces. On every tier, an arched shrine niche houses traces of sculptural images, possibly Buddha statues. This monument stands out as unique in Sri Lankan architecture: it is the only stepped pyramid of its kind in the country, distinguished further by its square base.
3.2.11. Gal Potha (Stone Book) of King Nissanka Malla
Gal Potha stone slab inscription.
Situated outside the Hatadage and to the east of the circular Vatadage lies the Gal Potha, a massive rectangular “stone book.” Measuring over twenty-six feet in length, four feet in width, and twenty-three inches in thickness, this monolithic inscription weighs twenty-five tons. Its surface is elaborately carved with floral motifs and engraved with the royal edicts of King Nissanka Malla (r. 1187–1196). The name “Gal Potha” literally means “Stone Book.” It is believed that this monumental inscription was brought from Mihintale, the sacred site where Arahant Mahinda Thero, son of Emperor Aśoka, introduced Buddhism at the Ruvanvelisaya Monastery in Mataleto.
Author Giới Hương visiting the Gal Potha inscription of King Nissanka Malla, July 12, 2023.
The Gal Potha is regarded as one of the most remarkable works commissioned by King Nissanka Malla, narrating his life, authority, and governance of Sri Lanka, as well as his diplomatic relations with foreign nations, including distant regions such as present-day Pakistan and Indonesia.
The inscription, consisting of more than 4,300 characters arranged in seventy-two lines, is finely engraved in the royal script of King Nissanka Malla. At both ends of the stone slab are carvings of swans, while the base is adorned with elegant depictions of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi flanked by two elephants pouring water over her.
The royal script of King Nissanka Malla.
3.2.12. Hatadage Stūpa
Facing the circular Vatadage is the Hatadage Stūpa, traditionally attributed either to King Nissanka Malla or, according to some sources, to King Parakramabahu. The shrine served as a sacred chamber for housing the Tooth Relic of the Buddha before it was transferred to the Royal Monastery of Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy.
An inscription preserved here records the king’s words: “This Dhamma, which brings happiness to all beings and which alone deserves to be preserved and honored in the world, should always be maintained.”87.
The Hatadage Stūpa.
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, 82.
Constructed of stone walls faced with lighter masonry and decorated with artistic double moldings, the Hatadage is a two- story structure, though the upper story has collapsed over time. Within the shrine remain three granite statues of the Buddha, while two guardian figures still stand intact at the entrance.
3.2.13. Gal Vihāra Rock Temple
In the ancient capital of Polonnaruwa lies the renowned Gal Vihāra Rock Temple, also known as the “Northern Rock Temple.”88. This rock sanctuary stretches ninety-seven feet in length and thirty-two feet in height at the center, gradually sloping towards the end.
From left: Bhikkhunī Đức Trí, Viên Đào, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Śrāmaṇerī Viên Lành, and Bhikkhunī Viên Bảo at the Gal Vihāra Rock Temple, July 12, 2023.
- Gal Viharaya,” Lakpura, https://lakpura.com/gal-vihara (accessed March 26, 2026).
The colossal Gal Vihāra Buddha statue.
Carved directly into the granite outcrop are four colossal Buddha statues of extraordinary artistry, showcasing intricate details of ancient Sinhalese stone sculpture. The ensemble consists of:
• Two seated Buddhas in the lotus posture with hands in dhyāna mudrā, one carved in high relief outside and another carved deeper within the cave;
• A standing Buddha with arms crossed across the chest, radiating serenity and compassion;
• A reclining Buddha depicting the parinibbāṇa, symbolizing
the Buddha’s final passing.
Around these statues are delicately carved ornamental motifs characteristic of early Sinhalese art. Additionally, figures of King Parakramabahu, a shrine dedicated to the Hindu deity Śiva, and the nearby Parakrama Samudraya reservoir with its lush greenery add to the sacred landscape surrounding the cave (for further details on colossal Buddha statues, see Chapter 5).
The seated Buddha inside Gal Vihāra and the entrance path leading to the rock sanctuary, July 12, 2023.
3.2.14. Pabalu Vihāra Stūpa
Pabalu Vihāra Stūpa, meaning “Temple of Marbles,” is a multi- tiered hemispherical dagoba dating back to the reign of King Parakramabahu I (1153–1186). At its core stands a Buddha image flanked by two stone pillars. This monument is the third largest stūpa in Polonnaruwa and despite having endured for more than ten centuries, remains in a relatively well-preserved state.
Pabalu Vihāra Stūpa.
Tradition holds that the stūpa was sponsored by Queen Rupavati, one of King Parakramabahu’s consorts. Several Buddha statues
from the post-Polonnaruwa period are also enshrined around the great dagoba.
3.2.15. Hindu Shiva Devale No. 2
The Hindu shrine known as Shiva Devale No. 2 was constructed in the refined Chola architectural style, entirely out of granite.89. It likely dates to the post-Polonnaruwa period, possibly during the thirteenth century under South Indian rule. A number of Chola bronze cult objects were unearthed here and are now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.
Hindu Shiva Devale No.2
This temple stands as one of the rare Hindu monuments within the predominantly Buddhist sacred complex of Polonnaruwa, and it remains a remarkable testament to the presence and artistry of South Indian religious architecture in Sri Lanka.
3.2.16. Rankot Vihāra Grand Stūpa: Golden Pinnacle Relic
Rankot Vihāra Grand Stūpa is an impressive stūpa towering 180 feet in height with a circumference of 550 feet and is located in the ancient city of Polonnaruwa.90. It was constructed during the reign of King Nissanka Malla (1187–1196).
- Lonely Planet, Sri Lanka (Melbourne: Lonely Planet, 2023), 218.
90. Lonely Planet, “Shiva Devale No 2,” accessed March 27, 2026, https:// www.lonelyplanet.com/points-of-interest/shiva-devale-no-2/480866
The Rankot Vihāra91.
The Rankot Vihāra follows the architectural tradition of the great hemispherical stūpas of the Anurādhapura Mahāvihāra and bears a striking resemblance to the monumental Ruwanwelisaya of Anurādhapura.
3.2.17. Kiri Vihāra White Stūpa
Kiri Vihāra White Stūpa (Milk-White Stūpa) is a majestic white hemispherical stūpa, recognized as one of the sixteen sacred sites (solosmasthanas) most revered by Buddhist pilgrims in Sri Lanka. Tradition holds that this stūpa was built in the third century BCE by King Mahāsena, ruler of the Kataragama region, in honor of his queen, Subadra.
Kiri Vihāra White Stūpa.92.91. Michael Gunther, Polonnaruwa 0320, Wikimedia Commons.
92. Mike Willi, The Ancient City in Polonnaruwa, Wikimedia Commons.
Kiri Vihāra rises to a height of 95 feet with a circumference of 280 feet. It is located 2,600 feet north of the renowned Ruhunu Mahā Kataragama Devalaya and is presently under the custodianship of the Venerable Kobawaka Dhamminda Thera.
According to legend, it is believed that the sword used by Prince Siddhartha to cut off his hair at the time of his renunciation was once enshrined within this stūpa.
3.2.18. Lankātilaka Buddha Statue
The Lankātilaka Buddha statue standing within the Lankātilaka Image House is one of the most distinguished architectural monuments of the ancient Polonnaruwa Kingdom, constructed under the reign of King Parakramabahu I.
The Lankātilaka Buddha statue.93.
Two colossal brick walls, each thirteen feet thick and rising to a height of fifty-six feet form a narrow passageway leading to an awe-inspiring standing Buddha image, over forty-six feet tall, though now missing its head. The figure, firm and solemn, stands prominently between the towering walls, visible from afar.
93. Micdeva, Lankathilaka Polonnaruwa, Wikimedia Commons.
The inner walls are divided into five panels, each adorned with elaborate carvings of goddesses, floral motifs, dragon arches (makara), and creatures such as lions, reflecting the refined artistry of the period.
3.2.19. Lankātilaka Image House
The Lankatilaka Image House is among the most magnificent edifices of the ancient city of Polonnaruwa, constructed in the twelfth century under King Parakramabahu I. Its architecture represents a synthesis of Sinhalese craftsmanship from the Polonnaruwa period and stylistic influences from China.
The imposing red-brick walls of Lankatilaka Image House.94.
The imposing red-brick walls of Lankatilaka Image House rise to an impressive height of fifty-five feet.95. In the twelfth century, this image house was regarded as one of the most resplendent and grand Buddhist structures in all of Asia.
3.2.20. Demala Mahā Seya: Tamil Dagoba
The Demala Mahā Seya, also known as the “Tamil Dagoba,” is
- Bergentroll, Lankatilaka, Wikimedia Commons.
95. Demala Maha Seya,” Attractions in Sri Lanka, https://www. attractionsinsrilanka.com/travel-directory/demala-maha-seya/ (accessed March 26, 2026).
a vast but unfinished stūpa begun under King Parakramabahu I within the precincts of ancient Polonnaruwa.96.
Had it been completed, it would have stood as the largest Buddhist monument ever constructed by human hands, with a projected circumference of 2,100 feet and a height of 1,610 feet. Tradition records that it was King Parakramabahu himself who envisioned this monumental stūpa, intending that the colossal Buddha image could be seen from a great distance, inspiring faith among all who beheld it.
The Demala Mahā Seya.
The site of Demala Mahā Seya is located 1.5 miles from Polonnaruwa towards Somawathiya. Turning onto Sinhapura Road for two miles, and then further along the route to Pilimage Thivanka at Nissankamallapura, one reaches the area of this monumental, though unfinished, stūpa after another mile.
3.2.21. Nelum Pokuna: Lotus Pond
The Lotus Pond, hewn out of blue-gray granite, was designed
96. “The imposing red-brick walls of Lankatilaka,” Tours Lanka, http://www. tourslanka.com/things-to-do/situated-in-polonnaruwa/ (accessed March 26, 2026).
in five descending tiers resembling the petals of a lotus, converging towards the central core. This architectural offering was attributed to King Parakramabahu the Great.
Though modest in size, the pond remains completely intact and exhibits exquisite artistry. It is a remarkable testament to the creativity and refined craftsmanship of the ancient Sinhalese builders.
The Lotus Pond, hewn out of blue-gray granite.
3.2.22. Tivanka Buddha Image House
Aquarter mile north of the Lotus Pond stands the Tivanka Buddha Image House, constructed of brick and believed to have been built either by King Parakramabahu I or King Parakramabahu
II.97. Its walls, once covered in plaster, are adorned with murals in hues of green, pale yellow, and deep red, depicting three monumental Buddha figures known as Tivanka (Three Bends), rendered with extraordinary finesse and proportion greater than life size.
- “The Tivanka Image House,” Tour.lk, https://tour.lk/destination/sri-lanka/ polonnaruwa/tivanka-image-house/132/ (accessed March 26, 2026).
Vibrant frescoes cover both the inner and outer walls of the Tivanka Buddha Image House.
These vibrant frescoes cover both the inner and outer walls of the Tivanka Buddha Image House. Situated in a tranquil rural landscape shaded with trees, the site radiates an atmosphere of serenity that continues to draw local and international visitors alike, who come to venerate, meditate, and absorb the stillness of this sacred monument.
3.2.23. Ancient Pothgul Vihāra Library
Less than a mile south of the Tivanka Image House lies the ancient and tranquil monastic library of Pothgul Vihāra, constructed during the reign of King Parakramabahu I (1153– 1186).98. Built of brick, the structure consisted of four levels, with a circumference of 157 feet, and functioned as a center for the study and preservation of Buddhist scriptures. The two lower floors served as the library, the third contained nine monastic cells for resident monks, and the uppermost circular chamber, crowned with a domed roof, was dedicated to the veneration of the Buddha.
- “The reign of King Parakramabahu I (1153–1186),” AmazingLanka.com, https://amazinglanka.com/wp/pothgul-vehera/ (accessed March 26, 2026).
Pothgul Vihāra Library.99.
Although the upper superstructure has collapsed, the foundations and walls remain remarkably well preserved. Within the plastered chambers, even today, a sound uttered resonates with long, haunting echoes. On both sides of the main building stand two small stūpas, each six feet high, with an elongated courtyard extending to the eastern facade. Though most of the murals have faded due to the ravages of time and weather, faint traces remain, testifying to paintings that once adorned the library more than a thousand years ago.
3.2.24. Medirigiriya Vatadage Circular Relic House
Less than a mile from the center of Polonnaruwa lies the renowned archaeological site of the Medirigiriya Vatadage, a circular relic house of the ancient monastery at Medirigiriya in the north central province. This sacred edifice was originally constructed during the Anurādhapura period, more than two millennia ago.
- Thomas Z, Potgul Vehera, Wikimedia Commons.
The Medirigiriya Vatadage.100.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương visiting the Medirigiriya Vatadage Circular Relic House, August 2016.
According to the Zamani Project (2019), this architectural masterpiece is believed to have been built during the reign of King Aggabodhi I (564–598 CE) as a shrine to house a seated image of the Buddha.101. The structure is encircled by three concentric rings of stone pillars still visible today. The outermost ring comprises thirty-two columns, each nine feet high; the middle ring has twenty columns, each sixteen feet high; and the innermost ring has sixteen columns, each seventeen feet high.
This vatadage remains a superb example of ancient Sri Lankan
100. S.G. Seyone, Mediridiriya Watadageya, Wikimedia Commons.
101. Zamani Project, “The Medirigiriya Vatadage,” 2019, https://www. zamaniproject.org/site-sri-lanka-Medirigiriya.html (accessed March 26, 2026).
stone craftsmanship. The monastic complex of Medirigiriya also included two bathing ponds, a meditation cave, a latrine, a dispensary, and a kitchen. After the invasion of Kalinga Magha, the site fell into ruin and was gradually forgotten. In 1897, during a forest expedition, H.C.P. Bell rediscovered the monument. Realizing its importance, he immediately reported it to the authorities. Restoration work followed, and by 1945 the site was reopened for public veneration and visitation, continuing as a place of heritage and pilgrimage to the present day.
Venerable Siri Sumedha, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation together with Sri Lankan lay Buddhists in front of the Medirigiriya Vatadage, August 2016.
3.2.25. Alahana Parivena Hospital
Along the northern road, pilgrims will arrive at the Alahana Parivena Hospital built by King Parakramabahu I. It was part of a large monastic complex. The main structure in this complex is the Kiri Vihāra consultation hall, eighty feet high, eighty-eight
feet in diameter, with a brick dome and a bath for patients to soak in medicinal oil.
One section of the Alahana Parivena Hospital.
A wall 1,880 feet long surrounds the entire hospital. There were many murals in plaster on the walls, now ruined, with only some remaining at the end of the corridor. On both sides of the hospital entrance stand large stone columns coated in plaster. Traces indicate that there used to be two large gates. Within this monastic complex is the Baddhasima Prasāda, a chapter house used for important monastic assemblies, along with the monks’ quarters.
3.2.26. Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum
The Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum is a modest museum in Sri Lanka, dedicated to those who wish to study Buddhism and the once-thriving history of the ancient Sri Lankan kingdom that existed from the eleventh to thirteenth centuries.102. This was a place worth visiting to gather information before we entered the field to experience the Polonnaruwa Buddhist complex.
The museum’s rooms are interconnected; each room is dedicated to a specific theme. There are many Buddhist and Hindu artifacts
102. ShvRm Traveller, “Polonnaruwa Site Museum,” review of Archaeological Museum, Tripadvisor, November 22, 2018.
in the form of stone, bronze, and clay statues, along with models of stūpas, caves, and monasteries that existed during the early period of the kingdom.
The Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum.
The museum is one of the must-visit sites if we are to pay homage to the Buddhist ruins of Sri Lanka. The Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum represents the cultural and religious heritage of that era.
3.2.27. Visitor Information for Polonnaruwa
Polonnaruwa is sixty-three miles from Anurādhapura, eighty- seven miles from Kandy, and thirty-five miles from Sigiriya. These are the three cultural heritage “golden triangle” sites of Sigiriya, Polonnaruwa, and Anurādhapura in Sri Lanka.
From Sigiriya to Polonnaruwa, there are frequent tour buses running from the nearby main town of Dambulla. From Dambulla, there are many buses to Polonnaruwa, Anurādhapura, Kandy, and even Colombo.
There are trains running there from Colombo Fort, but you must stop first at Trincomalee, then continue to Gal Oya temple in the ancient capital of Polonnaruwa.
The entrance fee to visit the Polonnaruwa ruins complex is
$25 for foreign visitors. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is preserved and developed thanks to ticket contributions.
The open hours of the Polonnaruwa ruins complex are 7:00 a.m.
– 6:30 p.m. daily.
Polonnaruwa town is conveniently located just four miles between the old city and the newly built downtown area. The archaeological sites are compact and close to each other, so pilgrims can explore or pay homage either on foot or by bicycle.
Map of the Polonnaruwa archaeological site.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương and Hương Sen nuns visited the Polonnaruwa archaeological complex on July 13, 2023.
***
Chapter 4
Sacred Buddhist Rock Mountains
he island nation of Sri Lanka, blessed with fertile tropical forests and highlands, is adorned with lush green mountains intimately connected with significant events
in Buddhist history. Among them are Mihintale, the cradle of Buddhism (Anurādhapura, northern Sri Lanka); Sigiriya, the Lion Rock and Eighth Wonder of the World (Dambulla, Central Sri Lanka); the Sacred Footprint of the Buddha on Sri Pāda, also known as Adam’s Peak (Sabaragamuwa); and the ancient stupa, Girihandu Seya on Tiriyaya Mountain (Trincomalee, Eastern Sri Lanka), and many others.
4.1. MIHINTALE MOUNTAIN: BIRTHPLACE OF SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM AND SITE OF THE FIRST THERAVĀDA MISSION FROM INDIA
Mihintale Mountain, located eight miles east of the capital city Anurādhapura, is the site of the historic encounter between the Venerable Arahant Mahinda Thero (the son of Emperor Aśoka, then thirty-two years old) and King Devanampiya Tissa (307– 267 BCE). In the year 236 after the parinibbāna of the Buddha,
Arahant Mahinda and his delegation of emissaries from India arrived in Sri Lanka to transmit the Dhamma. King Devanampiya Tissa, together with his ministers and people, joyfully received the liberating Dhamma and took refuge, becoming disciples of the Buddha.103.
Kantaka Cetiya Stūpa, an ancient Buddhist stūpa at the Mihintale archaeological site in Sri Lanka.104.
Thereafter, King Devanampiya Tissa built the Mahāvihāra Monastery, where Arahant Mahinda established the Sangha and ordained the first monks in Sri Lanka. The king also earnestly requested Emperor Aśoka to send his daughter, the Venerable Sanghamittā Therī, to establish a Bhikkhunī Sangha for women renunciants. Emperor Aśoka then sent a sapling from the sacred Bodhi tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodhgayā in Bihar, India. This sapling was brought by Sanghamittā Therī to Sri Lanka and planted in Anurādhapura. Today, this Bodhi tree is regarded as the oldest historically recorded tree in the world.
- “Attractions of Mihintale: Cradle of Sri Lanka’s Buddhism,” Lanka Excursions Holidays, https://www.lanka-excursions-holidays.com/mihintale- attractions (accessed March 26, 2026).
104. Own workA, Kantaka Chaithya Vahalkada, Wikimedia Commons.
The white hemispherical Chetiya Stūpa on top of Mihintale mountain.105.
From Mihintale, Buddhism and Sri Lankan culture began to flourish. Countless monks and nuns entered the Sangha, members of royalty and common people alike took refuge in the Triple Gem, monasteries were constructed, and the Tipiṭaka was commented upon, translated, and published. For this reason, Mihintale is revered as the cradle of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, the very first landmark of the Theravāda mission from India, and a sacred destination for pilgrims from around the world.106.
Every June, Mihintale becomes a great religious center, as thousands of Buddhist pilgrims dressed in traditional white sil redhi garments gather from all corners of the island to commemorate Poson Poya, the day that marks the birth of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.107. Pilgrims often combine this journey with a visit to the sacred Bodhi tree in Anurādhapura, the oldest living tree in recorded history.
- Mhvdasun, Mihinthalaya 3, Wikimedia Commons.
106. Mihintale: The Cradle of Buddhism Mihintale, Sri Lanka: tourist information, photo. https://www.lanka-excursions-holidays.com/welcome. html
107. Mihintale: The meeting place between the Buddhist monk Mahinda and King Devanampiyatissa (Britannica).
4.1.1. Pilgrimage Features of Mihintale
Mihintale Peak
Stone Steps of Mihintale Hill Kantaka Chetiya Stūpa Ambasthala Dagoba (Sila Cetiya)
Mahinda Guhāva (Cave of the Arahant Mahinda)
Alms Hall
Vejja Sala Hospital
Kaludiya Pokuna (Sylvan Pond of Black Water)
Assembly Hall
Meditation Hall (Sannipata Sālā) Naga Pokuna (Dragon Pond)
4.1.2. Minhintale Peak
In 308 BCE, 236 years after the Buddha’s parinibbāna, Emperor Aśoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pāṭaliputra, the imperial capital, where it continued for nine months. During this Council, disputes over doctrinal differences were resolved, false monks were expelled from the Sangha, and missionary monks were dispatched throughout India and even beyond its borders.
Venerable Mahinda, the son of Emperor Aśoka, was chosen to bring the Dhamma to the southern regions. Together with his monastic companions, he departed from Pāṭaliputra, first staying at Videsha Monastery (Sanchi), and then journeyed southward across the ocean to the island of Sri Lanka, India’s neighboring land.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Bhikkhunī Viên Quang, and lay devotee Viên Phương visited the sacred peak on August 17, 2016.
Venerable Mahinda first landed at Gokanna (ancient Trincomalee) and eventually stopped at a mountain just outside Anurādhapura.108. King Devanampiya Tissa, who was out hunting with his courtiers, unexpectedly encountered these dignified strangers clad in ochre robes. Approaching them with reverence, the king inquired and Venerable Mahinda declared: “O Great King, we are brethren, disciples of the Supreme King. Out of compassion, we have come from India to help you and your people understand the Dhamma of the Buddha.”109.
On the following day, the king invited Venerable Mahinda to deliver a discourse to the royal household. However, common people were not allowed into the palace. Therefore, soon after, the populace gathered in the royal elephant stables, where Mahinda Thera expounded the Dhamma to them. From that moment, Buddhism began to spread widely across the island of Sri Lanka.
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, 94–96.
109. Venerable Mahinda.
https://www.lanka-excursions-holidays.com/mihintale-attractions.html
The original name of the mountain where King Devanampiya Tissa met Mahinda Thera’s Sangha was Missaka Pabbata. It was later known as Chetiyagiri (Mountain of Stūpas), and finally renamed Mihintale. The term “Mihintale” is interpreted as “Mahinda’s Plateau” or “Mahinda’s Mountain Saddle,” commemorating the historic encounter between Venerable Mahinda and King Devanampiya Tissa.110.
Venerable Mahinda remained in Sri Lanka for forty years, spending the latter part of his life at Mihintale, where he passed away in 202 BCE. After cremation, his relics were enshrined in various places across Sri Lanka, including in a stūpa on Mihintale itself.
An inscription near Kantaka Chetiya records that King Devanampiya Tissa had sixty-eight caves constructed on Mihintale for Venerable Mahinda and the monks to dwell in seclusion. When the great Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein visited Mihintale centuries later, two thousand monks were still residing and practicing there. This attests to the flourishing of Mihintale as a great Buddhist center in ancient times.
4.1.3. Stone Steps of Mihintale Hill
At the foot of Mihintale, pilgrims are greeted by a long stone stairway leading to the summit, stretching 1,019 feet with 1,840 steps. The construction of this stairway required immense labor in quarrying, carrying, and assembling stones to provide pilgrims a safe and accessible path. The first flights of steps were built during the reign of King Bhathika Abhaya (22 BC, seventh century CE), with subsequent monarchs continuing to restore and expand the stairway, including the addition of a broad paved pathway from the parking area to the mountain’s base.
The lower section of the stairway is broad and gentle, but as it ascends the rocky hill, the steps become narrower and curve
- Ibid.
along the mountain’s contours. Stone railings and walls line the sides, allowing weary pilgrims to rest along the way or hold on as they climb towards the summit.
About 1,492 feet up the slope, to the left lies a ruined monastery marked by numerous stone pillars. Higher still, a stairway to the right leads to the Kantaka Stūpa. Upon reaching the main gateway at the top, pilgrims continue on smaller steps to conquer the windswept summit of Mihintale.
The 1,840 stone steps leading to the summit of Mihintale.
4.1.4. Kantaka Chetiya Stūpa
At the summit of Mihintale, reached by ascending a long flight of steps, stands the circular Kantaka Chetiya, a three-tiered stūpa with four gateways. The stūpa rises forty feet in height, with a diameter of 131 feet and a circumference of 425 feet. It is among the earliest religious monuments on the island, dating back to the second century BCE, and was first excavated by the Department of Archaeology in 1934.
The distinctive feature of this monumental brick stūpa is its four elaborately decorated gateways (vahalkadas), one on each side, built with multiple layers of stone and brick. The eastern and southern gateways remain well preserved, adorned with exquisite horizontal friezes depicting celestial maidens,
elephants, geese, and floral motifs, while the other gateways feature lion-shaped columns. These vahalkadas are recognized as among the earliest examples of Sinhala sculptural art.
The Kantaka Chetiya Stūpa.
4.1.5. Ambasthala Dagoba (Sila Cetiya)
The Mango Grove Hill (Ambasthala) is the principal sacred site of Mihintale, where the most important monuments are clustered. At its center stands the white Ambasthala Dagoba; to the left is a serene white seated statue of the Buddha, and to the right rises the great Mahaseya Dagoba.
Ambasthala Dagoba (Sila Cetiya).111.
- Chrisi1964, Ambasthala Dagoba in Mihintale, Wikimedia Commons.
Venerable Sumedha, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, and disciples from Hương Sen Monastery at the foot of the Ambasthala Dagoba, July 11, 2023.
The Ambasthala Dagoba was built by King Devanampiya Tissa (c. 42–20 BCE) to commemorate the very place where he first encountered Venerable Mahinda. In front of the stūpa stands a statue of King Devanampiya, positioned at the spot where he first beheld and paid homage to the great arahant.
Entrance ticket for the Ambasthala Dagoba.
4.1.6. Mahinda Guhāva Cave (Cave of Arahant Mahinda)
From this white stūpa, a steep stairway descends to the stone Dhamma hall, where Venerable Mahinda delivered his first teaching on the island. Flanking the cave nearby are two inscriptions of King Mahinda IV, recording the life of Venerable Mahinda and the Sangha at Mihintale. These are among the longest and most valuable epigraphs in ancient Sri Lankan Buddhist history, providing a vivid account of the contemplative life of the monks dwelling at Mihintale.
Steps to the stone cave of Arahant Mahinda.
A path 300 yards east of the modern monastery leads to the cave where Venerable Mahinda resided upon his arrival. Within the cave lies a polished rectangular stone carved in the shape of a folded monastic robe, symbolizing the saffron robe of the great arahant. There is also a smooth rock slab, believed to have served as Venerable Mahinda’s bed.
Author Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương with Hương Sen Temple disciples visiting the sixty-eight meditation caves of Mihintale, July 11, 2023.
4.1.7. Alms Hall
The refectory functioned as the dining hall (alms hall or piṇḍapāta-sālā) where monks received alms food and partook of the mid-day meal. Two long rectangular troughs, each twenty-three feet in length, were used for serving rice, while
smaller receptacles held other dishes and condiments offered to the Sangha. On the right side, a water system connected to the central reservoir supplied water for use in the dining hall. An inscription records the service of twelve volunteer cooks and several lay devotees assisting with tasks such as carrying firewood.
The monastic refectory.
A katikāvata (monastic regulation inscription) describes the vibrant life of the refectory as follows:
On the tenth day of the waning moon of the month of Vap, in the sixteenth year of the reign of King Sirisanghabodhi Abhaya (Mahinda), the king invited the Sangha residing at Chetiyagiri Vihāra and Abhayagiri Vihāra to a great offering. At this almsgiving, the King was deeply pleased and praised the monks for living harmoniously in accordance with the discipline of the Buddha.
Each day, after rising at dawn, the venerable monks donned their robes, reflected upon the four protective meditations, and then descended to the refectory to receive their morning meal. If a monk was ill and unable to attend, the physician would bring food to his chamber. Preceptors (teachers of the Vinaya) were provided with
five portions of food and a monastic robe; instructors of the suttas were given seven portions; and teachers of the Abhidhamma were granted twelve portions.
Monks residing here or at any monastery had no right to control property belonging to the Three Jewels. Any ordained monk who engaged in worldly or unsuitable conduct, such as trading or killing animals, was to be expelled and not permitted to dwell in the monastery.
The abbot in charge of the monastery was to receive one naeliya of rice daily. One kalanda and four aka of gold were offered for each meditation retreat, both at its commencement and conclusion. Each year, fifteen kalanda of gold were donated for flowers, lamps, and requisites. The physician was granted two plots of land for a clinic; the astrologer received two kiriya of land and part of the village of Damiya; the barber was given one kiriya; oil and wicks for the lamps in the relic stūpa were supplied from a portion of the village of Karanda. Those who cultivated and offered white lotuses to the relic stūpa received two paya of land from this village, while donors of one hundred and twenty blue lilies each month were granted two kiriya of land from the village of Sapu.112.
From Mahinda’s Code:
On the tenth day of the waxing moon of the month of Vap, in the sixteenth year of his reign, the great king Sirisanghabodhi Abhaya... convened an assembly of the great community of monk residents in Cetiyagiri Vihāra and the Abhayagiri Vihāra. At this assembly, His Majesty conferred with competent persons about selecting such monastic rules as please him out of those in use.
112. Condensed from the Katikāvata Inscription by King Mahinda IV at Mihintale, Dhammika, Sacred Island, 91.
The monks residing in the monastery shall rise at dawn, meditate on the four protective formulas and having cleansed their teeth, shall dress as with love in their minds chant, and then they shall go down to the refectory and receive gruel and rice. Monks who are unable to go to assembly hall because of illness shall be granted a portion of food when they get a recommendation from the physician. To the monks who teach the Vinaya Pitaka shall be granted five portions of food and robes, to those who teach the Sutta Pitaka seven portions and to those who teach the Abhihamma, twelve...
Employees of the monastery shall be ordered and dismissed only by the monks in council, not by any individual monk. Monks residing here or at any place belonging to the monastery shall under no circumstances have control over any places owned by the monastery. Those who, having put on the yellow robe, commit acts inconsistent with the dress, such as buying and selling or killing animals, shall not be allowed to live on the mountain . . .
The monk who looks after the establishment shall be given one naeliya of raw rice daily. For the expense of the ceremony of commencing the rains retreat, one kalanda and one aka of gold shall be given for the closing ceremony a similar amount. For flowers and whitewashing, fifteen kalanda of gold per annum shall be allowed . . . The physician who applies leeches shall be given two paya of land for his maintenance, the astrologer two kiriya [of land] and a share from Damiya [village], the barber one kiriya . . . for providing wicks and oil for the lamps in the relic house, one paya of land from Karanda village shall be given. The two florists who provide white lotuses for the relic house shall receive two paya of land from this village, the person who provides a hundred and twenty
blue water lilies per month shall receive two kiriya of land from Sapu village...113.
4.1.8. Vejja Sālā Hospital
From the Mihintale town bus stop to the foot of the mountain, pilgrims pass through a flourishing mango grove. On the right- hand side lie the remains of the ancient Vejja Sālā Hospital, dating back to the third century.
The foundations of Vejja Sālā Hospital.
Today, the foundations, stone pillars, and a large monolithic stone bath sized to fit a human body still remain. The complex once had twenty-seven patient rooms and four larger chambers, all constructed around a central courtyard with a shrine to the Buddha at its heart. Modest hospitals such as this were not intended for the general public, but rather for monks and lay devotees of the monastery. Archaeological excavations here have unearthed numerous medical instruments and grinding mortars for preparing medicine, now displayed in a nearby small museum. The Cūḷavaṃsa chronicle also records the building of a hospital on Mihintale Hill identifiable with this Vejja Sālā Hospital.
- Ibid.
4.1.9. Kāludiya Pokuna Reservoir (Sylvan Pond of Black Water)
The Sylvan Pond, a man-made reservoir measuring 200 feet in length and seventy feet in width, was constructed in the tenth or eleventh century. It collected water during the rainy season and distributed it to supply the monasteries in this region.
Sylvan Pond.
The Assembly Hall.
The pond is called “Black Water” (Kāludiya) due to a legend claiming that if a monk prayed intensely and without pause for a
full twenty-four hours under a dark tree on its shore, the pond’s waters would slowly darken to black. Scientifically, however, the dark appearance of the water arises from the reflection of dense shade cast by surrounding trees and rock formations, especially before sunrise.
Beside the pond stands an ancient inscription carved in Brahmi script. Around the reservoir are found the remains of monasteries, assembly halls, stūpas, refectories, meditation cells, and caves used for contemplative practice.
4.1.10. Assembly Hall
Next to the refectory stands a rectangular assembly hall built by King Mahinda IV. Today, its foundations remain, along with ten stone pillars and two inscribed stone slabs on either side, recording the monastic regulations that once governed this sacred place.
4.1.11. Meditation Hall (Sannipata Sālā )
To the east of the mango grove, a stone stairway ascends to a meditation hall. Modest in size, it was designed to accommodate a small group of practitioners in seated meditation. At its center is a raised platform for the presiding elder, with three steps leading up. Sixty-four stone pillars once supported its roof; now only the foundations remain.
The meditation hall.
4.1.12. Nāga Pokuna (Dragon Pond)
At the top of the stairway, pilgrims will notice a path to the right. Following this trail through the forest leads to the Nāga Pond. The pond derives its name from the striking carving of a seven-headed nāga (serpent) that emerges from the rock wall, its tail curling down into the water, reaching to the very bottom. Originally a small natural spring and one of the principal water sources at Mihintale, it was later deepened and enlarged, with a retaining wall constructed around it to meet the community’s growing needs. The Mahāvaṃsa chronicle calls this place nāgacatukka, noting that the Arahant Mahinda once bathed there.
Nāga Pokuna (Dragon Pond).
Together with Sinha Pokuna and Kāludiya Pokuna, the Nāga Pond forms part of a network of natural and artificial reservoirs, symbols of the sophisticated Sinhalese hydraulic civilization. They bear witness to a remarkable blending of water engineering, landscape design, and sculptural art inherited from the Sinhalese ancestors.
4.1.13. Visitor Information for Mihintale
It is recommended to begin one’s pilgrimage at Mihintale before proceeding to Anurādhapura. Located eight miles east of Anurādhapura on the road to Trincomalee, Mihintale can be reached by bus in twenty minutes (fare: 30 rupees, less than
$1). A train service also runs on Saturdays and Sundays, taking around thirty minutes (fare: 15 rupees). A round-trip taxi from Anurādhapura costs 1,400 rupees, while a tuk-tuk is 1,000 rupees.
Buddha statue at Mihintale.114.
Most of the Mihintale archaeological complex is open to visitors free of charge. However, admission to the Ambasthala Mango Plateau with its ruins of sixty-eight meditation caves costs 500 rupees. Since climbing the sacred Mihintale mountain requires ascending 1,840 steps, it is advisable to begin early at dawn, bringing water and wearing thick socks as shoes must be removed before entering the sacred precincts.
- Bergentroll, Mihintale Buddha Statue, Wikimedia Commons.
Mihintale.115.
Map view of Mihintale cave site.
The ascent is both a physical challenge and a meditative journey: one climbs mindfully, breathes the fresh air, contemplates the historical site where Buddhism was first introduced, and engages in the wholesome exercise of mountain hiking. This is why many visitors, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist alike, find
- Rambukwelladk, Mihintale Rock View, Wikimedia Commons.
the experience deeply rewarding.
The scenery here fills pilgrims with awe, for it reveals a wondrous harmony between the creative hand of nature and the skillful artistry of humankind. Mihintale stands as both a sacred landscape and a challenge in the conquest of nature.
At the summit, pilgrims are greeted with breathtaking views: the city, villages, rice fields, and vast plains of Mihintale stretching endlessly in all directions. From here, one can even glimpse several stūpas of Anurādhapura in the distance. The panorama is truly like a painting, an exquisite harmony of nature’s creation and human devotion.
The summit of Mihintale stone cave.116.
4.2. SIGIRIYA LION ROCK AND THE ANCIENT CITY OF SIGIRIYA
Just as the Bodhi tree in Anurādhapura is celebrated for its miraculous sanctity in Buddhist tradition, and Mihintale is honored as the historical origin point of the Dhamma, so too does Sigiriya stand out as a grand fortress built on a vividly
116. Z Thomas, Mihintale 2017-10-16, Wikimedia Commons.
multicolored monolithic rock, rising proudly amidst the magnificent natural woodlands of Matale and Dambulla in Central Sri Lanka. It is also a place with Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions, venerating the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara.
Sigiriya, also called Sinhagiri is an ancient rock fortress situated in the northern Matale District near the town of Dambulla, in Sri Lanka’s Central Province.117. The name refers to a site of immense historical and archaeological significance, where a massive rock column towers 590 feet above the surrounding plain and 1,200 feet above sea level. This volcanic outcrop, formed through ancient eruptions, rises more than 600 feet over the lush forests below.
According to the Cūḷavaṃsa, the ancient chronicle of Sri Lanka, the site was transformed in the fifth century CE by King Kassapa I (477–495), who established his new capital atop this lofty rock fortress, making it one of the earliest known royal citadels of the world. From afar, the Sigiriya rock gleams with varied hues, set strikingly against the endless expanse of jungle and paddy fields.
King Kassapa I built his royal palace on the summit and adorned its sides with vivid frescoes. Midway up the rock he constructed a monumental gateway in the form of a colossal seated lion with its two forepaws and ten sharp claws prominently carved, thus giving the name Sinhāgiri, (Lion Rock, related to the Sanskrit Siṃhapura, the root of “Singapore,” meaning “Lion City”).
- Sigiriya. https://archaeology-travel.com/travel-reports/caught-between-a- rock-and-a- high-place-sri-lanka-sigiriya/
Sigiriya Lion Rock (Sinhāgiri)
- UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site.118.
Kassapa, son of King Dhātusena, usurped the throne by killing his father and driving his elder brother into exile. Fearing retribution, Kassapa transformed Sigiriya into a nearly impregnable stronghold from which he could observe and defend against any assault.
Yet in 495, after a brutal but brief battle, he was defeated and chose to end his own life. During his eleven-year reign at Sigiriya, Kassapa created a dazzling royal complex, the remains of which still astonish visitors today.119.
After his death, Sigiriya ceased to serve as the royal capital. King Moggallāna reclaimed the throne and converted the fortress into a monastic retreat for Buddhist monks. It continued to function as a Buddhist monastery until the fourteenth century. Sigiriya remains one of the best-preserved examples of ancient urban planning. In 1982, UNESCO recognized it as a World Heritage Site, declaring it the “Eighth Wonder of the World,” now safeguarded as a global treasure.
- Dronepicr, Sigiriya Lion Rock Aerial, Wikimedia Commons.
119. Dhammika, Sacred Island, 95.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương and Bhikkhunī Viên Quang at the summit of Sigiriya Lion Rock (Sinhāgiri), August 17, 2016.
4.2.1. Pilgrimage Features of Sigiriya Lion Rock
• Sigiriya Lion Fortress (Sinhāgiri)
• The 12,290 Stone Steps
• Royal Water Gardens
• Cave Shrines along the Rock Face
• Frescoes and Ancient Graffiti on the Rock Walls
• Mahāyāna Cult of Avalokiteśvara (Bodhisattva of Compassion)
4.2.2. Sigiriya Lion Fortress (Sinhāgiri)
The Sigiriya Lion Fortress is the foundation of a palace with a solid and complex system of fortifications, surrounded by gardens, walkways, ponds, and valleys.120. The area around this ancient palace has been separated from the outside world for thousands of years. The main entrance to the palace lies on the northern side of the rock, with 12,290 stone steps leading from the foot to the summit. There are several stone inscriptions in this garden recording the names of donors who offered support to the monastery and the Sangha before King Kassapa came.
- The Sigiriya Lion Fortress (Sīhagiri). www.ancientpages.com
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Bhikkhunī Viên Quang, and their guide conquering the Sigiriya Lion Rock, August 16, 2016.
Looking at the rock, one sees it as a gigantic lion with reddish- colored skin carrying a palace on its back, with four paws and sharp claws humbly crouching. Therefore, the rock was named Lion Rock. Since the palace on the summit reaches into the white clouds and blue sky, it is called the “Fortress in the Sky.”
On the summit, there are three gigantic boulders surrounding the wide fortress. The vast foundations show that this was once a splendid capital with many halls, palaces, thrones, gardens, tunnels, and pools, architectural works astonishing for their unique ancient techniques and skills.
4.2.3. The 12,290 Stone Steps
There are 12,290 stone steps winding and bending along the steep cliff to the summit. At the northern end of the fortress top, the rock slopes downward forty feet, and on the rock surface below are traces of many wooden postholes, which indicate that there was once a wooden stairway leading to the summit. When climbing the stone steps to the top of the rock, visitors pass through the mouth of a gigantic lion crouching there. At present, only the two forepaws with very sharp claws remain clearly visible.
Although climbing to the high summit is somewhat dangerous, it does not stop visitors. Each day thousands of tourists from
around the world crowd the narrow wooden and stone stairways to conquer the summit and visit both the fortress and the palace in the sky.
Resting before continuing to overcome the challenge of 12,290 winding stone steps, August 16, 2016.
4.2.4. Royal Water Gardens
The construction of fortifications and royal gardens upon a rock rising more than 600 feet was an outstanding technological achievement, highly advanced for its time. The royal gardens of Sigiriya, situated on Potala Mountain as recorded by the Great Master Xuanzang,121. are counted among the most ancient landscaped gardens of the world, comprising water fountains, pebble gardens, caves, and related structures.
- Dhammika. Sacred Island, 95.
The water gardens atop Sigiriya Lion Rock.122.
The principal garden measures 525 feet in length and 78 feet in width, containing several man-made rectangular pools and stone stairways. Of particular note is an octagonal pool hewn from a single monolithic block, with dimensions of 88 feet by 68 feet, resembling a modern rooftop swimming basin. In addition, four symmetrically arranged fountains were constructed on either side of the main passageway.
The temples, monastic establishments, and royal gardens upon the summit of Sigiriya Lion Rock were encompassed by a defensive stone wall measuring thirty feet in height and over a mile in length, with two principal gates located to the north and south. At present, only a portion of this fortification remains, adjacent to a moat. The moat itself was constructed with stone blocks, measuring eighty feet in breadth and fourteen feet in depth. The wall may have been composed of rubble, stone, and excavated earth from the moat.
- Dronepic, Sigiriya Lion Rock Aerial, Wikimedia Commons.
The Sigiriya reservoir.
The question arises as to how a continuous water supply was maintained upon the summit. The primary source was collected upon the lower slopes and conducted upwards through channels and moats, from which it was directed to the fountains by means of an underground pipe system. The mechanism operated upon the simple principle of gravity and hydraulic pressure, thereby regulating the perpetual circulation of water. Circular limestone slabs perforated with outlets served as the bases of the ancient fountains. To the right of this water garden lie the remains of fortifications, palaces, monasteries, and ancillary edifices.
4.2.5. Caves on the Mountainside
Situated midway upon the ascent to the summit of Sigiriya Lion Rock are numerous rock caves. Access to these required ascending narrow, winding stairways hewn into the mountain face, where strong winds perpetually blow. Within certain caves are stone seats, polished smooth as though freshly carved from living marble. Other caves are enclosed with brick walls and
appear to have functioned as hermitages for Buddhist monks. Dwelling within such a natural mountain environment of purity was particularly conducive to spiritual cultivation and the practice of meditation.
Among these is a cave naturally formed in the likeness of a cobra’s hood, while others exhibit forms of remarkable singularity, enchanting, majestic, and imbued with a sense of mystery, standing as striking features amidst the surrounding natural landscape.
4.2.6. Rock Graffiti and Frescoes
Along the ascent to the summit of Sigiriya there are several rock caves situated over 300 feet above ground level. Particularly striking are the frescoes painted on the cave walls, remarkable for their distinctive colors and artistry.
Pilgrims must climb narrow spiral stairways swept by strong winds and pass through constricted entrances before reaching these cave galleries of heavenly frescoes. The paintings, dating back to the reign of King Kassapa, have endured for centuries. Some extend over 400 feet in length and 130 feet in height (known as “Fresco Pocket A, B, C, D, and E”), depicting Buddhas, bodhisattvas, deities, and celestial maidens (apsaras), often seminude, rendered with vibrant liveliness and delicate beauty. Their reddish-orange hues stand out against the gray rock surface, reminiscent of the murals of the Ajanta and Ellora caves in South India.
Although many frescoes have faded over time, the surviving ones still eloquently illustrate the devotional imagination of Buddhism, the integration of local religious cults, the worship of folk deities, and the sumptuous decorative art of the Sigiriya fortress. The Great Master Xuanzang attested:
All the gods, demi-gods, and mythological figures
are believed to dwell upon the slopes of Potala [i.e., Sigiriya], ascending in rank and spiritual attainment, with Vajrayāna deities such as Tara directed towards the summit, and Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva himself enthroned on the very peak.123.
The surfaces of some Sigiriya rocks were highly polished, as if painted to resemble the abodes of these divinities. In total, nineteen figures are believed to represent Tara, her consorts, and the protective deities (dhammapālas) of Avalokiteśvara. Sigiriya artists portrayed Tara as an emanation of Avalokiteśvara in multiple forms, aligning with the description in the Mañjuśrī- mūla-kalpa:
Tara assumes countless forms in thousands of places to rescue beings, responding to their cries for deliverance.124.
Among these, Fresco B10 (archaeological series number) is regarded as perfectly preserved and exceptionally beautiful. It depicts a celestial maiden, often identified as a Tara of the ancient world. To the left stands an attendant offering a tray of flowers, presenting them to the principal figure on the right, a divine lady or Tara. The latter’s serene face is cast downward, adorned with a refined and noble smile. She holds flowers in both hands, poised to scatter them in offering. The divine figure is portrayed seminude from the waist up, wearing a jeweled crown, stone-studded armlets, a triple-strand pearl necklace, large pendant gold earrings, and an elegant coiffure adorned with floral pins, with long tresses cascading down her back.
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, 95.
124. Ibid.
B10: Tara Sigiriya fresco picture.125.
To behold these exquisite frescoes, pilgrims must endure the trial of climbing more than 328 feet of narrow stone steps, followed by a tight iron spiral staircase (just wide enough for one ascending and one descending line of visitors), all buffeted by strong winds. Upon reaching the site, pilgrims breathe a sigh of relief, feeling amply rewarded by the vision of these sublime, otherworldly paintings nestled halfway up the windy slopes of the Lion Rock.
4.2.7. Mahāyāna Beliefs and Avalokiteśvara Worship on Sigiriya Lion Rock
The Sigiriya Lion Rock once housed numerous monasteries on its summit, among them a Mahāyāna monastery enshrining a golden image of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. According to Venerable S. Dhammika in his book Sacred Island: A Buddhist Pilgrim’s Guide to Sri Lanka:126.
After the image of the Buddha Sākyamuni, the next most venerated and widespread sacred figure in Buddhism is the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, the Lord of Compassion.
- Ranga Sai, Frescoes at Sigiriya, Wikimedia Commons.
126. Dhammika, Sacred Island, 99–103.
Since his appearance around the first century BCE, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara has been revered with deep devotion by Buddhists of all schools.
According to tradition, Avalokiteśvara has 108 epithets, one of which is Natha, under which name he has been chiefly worshipped in Sri Lanka . . . In North India, places such as Rājagaha already had Mahāyāna temples dedicated to Avalokiteśvara; in China, Mount Putuo (Putuo, Zhejiang Province) became a celebrated center of his worship, while in Sri Lanka, the enshrinement of Avalokiteśvara was carried out in the manner of the Sinhalese at this very Lion Rock (Sigiriya).
A little further to the left of the pathway, below the summit, there is a stone platform or shrine seat carved out of polished rock. Square sockets at the front corners appear to have once supported pillars for a canopy. This stone seat may have served as the pedestal for an image of Avalokiteśvara, comparable to the descriptions by the Great Master Xuanzang regarding the veneration of Avalokiteśvara on Mount Potala, here identified with the sacred mountain of Sigiriya.
In summary, upon ascending to the summit of Sigiriya rising 1,200 feet above sea level and swept by strong winds, visitors, may reward themselves by gazing upon the distant outlines of towns shrouded in mist amid the vast, verdant forests of central Sri Lanka. From this vantage point, one may also behold the expansive ruins of royal palaces, Buddhist monasteries, and the lion-throne fortress. Though no longer a multi-storied palace or intact citadel, the surviving foundations and remains of Sigiriya eloquently testify to the power and extraordinary creativity of the ancient Sinhalese. Truly, it is a marvelous wonder and an emblem of Sri Lanka’s cultural tourism.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương and Bhikkhunī Viên Quang ascending the multicolored Sigiriya Lion Rock on August16, 2016.
4.2.8. Visitor Information for Sigiriya Lion Rock
Location: Sigiriya Fortress lies six miles from Inamaluwa, situated on the main road between Kandy and Anurādhapura. From Polonnaruwa to Sigiriya Lion Rock, the journey takes two hours by taxi or bus, covering forty-one miles.
Open Hours: 7:00 a.m.–5:30 p.m.
Entrance Fees: $15 for citizens of South Asian countries;
$30 for visitors from other countries. A passport must be presented as proof of nationality when purchasing tickets.
Guide Fees: 1,500 Sri Lankan rupees ($5)
Sigiriya Museum: Exhibits artifacts excavated from the multicolored Lion Fortress of Sigiriya. Open from 8:30
a.m. to 5:30 p.m.; entrance fee $5.
4.3. THE BUDDHA’S SACRED FOOTPRINT ON SRI PADA MOUNTAIN (ADAM’S PEAK)
Mount Sri Pada (Sacred Foot), also called Adam’s Peak or the Mountain of the Buddha’s Footprint, rises to an elevation of 7,360 feet.127. It is situated in Sabaragamuwa Province, in central Sri Lanka, twenty-five miles northeast of Ratnapura and twenty miles southwest of Hatton. The mountain is more easily visible from the sea than from inland; thus, seafarers have long directed their prayers towards this sacred peak. For many centuries, it was regarded as the highest mountain on earth, and it holds a unique distinction in that all the major world religions venerate it and associate it with their own spiritual traditions.
Sri Pada is surrounded by dense, luxuriant forests, many of which today constitute a designated wildlife sanctuary. The climate is cool and refreshing, with ancient, moss-covered trees, forests of crimson-blossomed rhododendrons interspersed with wild orchids, and glittering gemstones embedded in the rock. At the summit is a natural rock formation with an enigmatic indentation shaped like a human footprint, roughly five feet seven inches long and two feet four inches wide. From as early as the first century BCE, the Sinhalese have believed this to be the footprint of the Buddha himself.
According to the Mahāvaṃsa, the Great Chronicle of Sri Lanka, the Buddha visited the island of Ceylon three times. On his third and final journey, he traveled from Kelaniya to Sri Pada, where he left his sacred impression upon the mountain summit as a perpetual spiritual presence in Sri Lanka. For this reason, the mountain came to be called the Mountain of the Buddha’s Footprint.
It is revered not only within Buddhism but also by the world’s other major religions. Hindus regard it as the footprint of Hanuman or Śiva; Christians associate it with Saint Adam or
127. “Adam’s Peak,” Wikipedia.
Saint Thomas; Muslims connect it with Allah or local saintly traditions; and indigenous faiths have also venerated it since antiquity. Long before the emergence of organized religions, the indigenous Veddas of Lanka worshipped the peak under the name Samanala Kanda (Mountain of Saman Butterflies), in honor of God Saman, one of the four guardian deities of the island. In Hindu devotion, the peak is called Śivan Ādi Padham (Śiva’s First Footprint), signifying the cosmic dance of creation in which Śiva imprinted his colossal step.
Mountain of the Buddha’s Footprint seen from the sea.128.
In addition, Sri Pada is also known by several other names: Lanka Mountain, Ratnagiri, Mountain of Gems, Malayagiri, or Rohana, as recorded in Sanskrit literature.129. The Mahāvaṃsa, composed in the fifth century CE, refers to Sri Pada as Samantakūṭa (Abode of the God Samanta), while modern Sinhalese chronicles call it Samanelakanda (Mountain of Butterflies), owing to the multitudes of butterflies that migrate there seasonally.
Before the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in 246 BCE, Sri Pada was venerated as the dwelling place of the local mountain deity
- Bernard Gagnon, Sri Pada, Wikimedia Commons.
129. Dhammika, Sri Pada, 109–19.
Samanta (Saman or Sumana), protector of the land and its faiths. With the later spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism from South India, this indigenous deity was assimilated into the Buddhist pantheon as Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (the Bodhisattva of Universal Virtue), one of the four principal Mahāyāna bodhisattvas (together with Mañjuśrī, Avalokiteśvara, and Kṣitigarbha), and has since been enshrined at Mount Sri Pada.
According to legend, in 104 BCE King Valagambha (also known as Vattagāmaṇī Abhaya), after being deposed from the throne was forced to live in exile within a remote wilderness for fourteen years. On one occasion, while hunting and in pursuit of a deer, the king was led to the summit of the mountain where he discovered the sacred stone footprint. That night, the deities appeared to him in a dream, revealing that this was the footprint of the Buddha Sākyamuni. Upon regaining his throne, the king subsequently restored and sanctified the site.
The eminent Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein, who visited Sri Lanka in 411–412 CE, referred to Sri Pada in his travelogue. Likewise, the Indian monk Punyopaya (655 CE) and the Kashmiri master Vajrabodhi, after residing for six months in the capital Anurādhapura, journeyed to venerate Sri Pada. Vajrabodhi recorded:
At last, when we reached the foot of the mountain, we beheld its wild, desolate slopes, strewn with strange gemstones and inhabited by wild beasts . . . After a long season of yearning, we ascended the peak and gazed upon the sacred impression of the Buddha’s foot. From that lofty height, I could see northwestward across the kingdom of Ceylon and even beyond the ocean.130.
Medieval travelers also documented their visits: the Venetian
130. Kashmiri master Vajrabodhi, as recorded in his biography by Lü Xiang (Tang dynasty), describing his pilgrimage to Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak) in Sri Lanka, eighth century. English paraphrase/translation adapted from historical accounts.
explorer Marco Polo (1254–1324) and the Arab scholar Ibn Battuta (1304–1368) both made pilgrimages to the holy mountain.
An inscription dated 1411 CE records that a grand fleet of the Chinese emperor, under the command of Admiral Zheng He (Ch’ing-ho), anchored at Galle. On behalf of the emperor, they offered lavish tribute to the sacred footprint at Sri Pada, including “1,000 pieces of gold, 5,000 pieces of silver, 50 rolls of richly embroidered silk, 4 pairs of jewel-studded banners, 5 ancient censers, 6 golden lotus blossoms, 25,000 catties of fragrant oil, and many other precious gifts.”131.
In 1423 CE, a delegation of monks from Thailand and Cambodia, then in Sri Lanka for the purpose of studying and collecting ancient Buddhist manuscripts, visited the sacred mountain before returning to their homelands. The leader of the delegation commissioned a replica of the sacred footprint, which was subsequently enshrined in Thailand.
How did Sri Pada and its mysterious footprint of the Buddha become so widely known at such an early date? The answer lies in geography. Sri Lanka was situated along the maritime crossroads between East and West, the so-called “Silk Road of the Sea.” By at least the third century BCE, Arab, Roman, and Indian vessels traversed these sea routes, where sailors could glimpse the peak of Sri Pada from afar, regarding it as both a navigational beacon and a sacred destination. Merchants, mariners, and adventurers carried tales and legends of the mountain to distant corners of the world.
In the sixteenth century, when Portuguese Christians arrived on the island, they proclaimed the footprint to be that of Saint
131. Galle Trilingual Inscription (Chinese portion), erected by Admiral Zheng He in Galle, Sri Lanka, dated February 15, 1409 (often associated with the fleet’s activities in 1411). The inscription records offerings made on behalf of the Yongle Emperor to the Buddha’s sacred footprint shrine on Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak). Translation adapted from standard scholarly renderings.
Thomas, the apostle said to have brought Christianity to Sri Lanka. Muslim traditions, in contrast, regarded it as the solitary footprint of Adam, who, after being expelled from Paradise, was placed upon the summit of Sri Pada by God himself, where he stood in penitence upon one foot for a thousand years.132.
The sublime height of the peak, its verdant beauty, and above all the sacred footprint, have long inspired monks, pilgrims, poets, writers, and devotees across cultures. Sri Pada is celebrated in literature, poetry, drama, and devotional works in numerous languages worldwide, including:
“Sumantakutavannana,” a Pāli poem of twenty stanzas composed in the thirteenth century by the monk Veheda Thera, and “Sālā Lihini Sandesa” (fifteenth century) in Sinhalese, extolling the beauty of Sri Pada.
“Suvul Sandesa” (a sixteenth century Sinhala poem), invoking the deity Samanta to protect both Sri Lanka and its king, the sovereign of the jeweled mountain.
Indian Sanskrit literature, such as Anargharāghava (ninth century), which recounts how Rāma, returning in his celestial chariot to Ayodhyā, pointed southward towards Sinhala Dvīpa, describing it as “a blue lotus rising from the ocean,” while likening the cloud-wreathed peak of Sri Pada to the jewel of that lotus.
The Kashmiri chronicle Rājataraṅgiṇī (eleventh century) narrates how King Meghavāhana traveled to Sri Lanka, received homage from Vibhīṣaṇa, the ruler of the Rākṣasas, and ascended the sacred mountain to worship the footprint.
The Arabian Nights (ninth–thirteenth centuries) includes132. Martin Gray, “The Footprint of the Buddha,” Sacred Sites: Places of Peace and Power, https://sacredsites.com/asia/sri_lanka/adams_peak.html (accessed March 29, 2026).
the tale of Sinbad the sailor who recounts: “I undertook a pilgrimage to the place where Adam was confined after being expelled from Paradise, and was filled with wonder as I ascended the peak of Sri Pada, that mystical and enchanted mountain.”
The Tamil epic Manimekhalai proclaims: “Sri Pada is the summit of lofty Samanta, upon which lies the footprint of the Buddha, the Enlightened One who crossed beyond the ocean of saṃsāra.”
References to the mountain also occur in the Malay Ramayana and in the pilgrimage writings of Sir John Mandeville (fourteenth century).
In modern times, the mountain reappears in literature such as Arthur C. Clarke’s science fiction novel The Fountains of Paradise.
4.3.1. Pilgrimage Features of Sri Pada
• Electric Lighting along the Assent to Sri Pada
• Sama Chatiya Temple
• Bhagava Cave
• Sacred Footprint of the Buddha
• Sunrise and the View from the Summit
• Ancient Iron Chains on the Stone Steps
4.3.2. Electric Lighting along the Assent to Sri Pada
At night, the electric lamps lining both sides of the ascent to Sri Pada shine brightly like blazing torches. This illumination is attributed to the meritorious contribution of John Kotelawala, then minister responsible for the restoration of the electric lamps
that had been neglected for several decades due to warfare. The restoration project was completed in 1947, and Kotelawala later became the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka.
During his visit to Sri Pada in 1860, William Skeen, when gazing down from the summit, was profoundly moved by the spectacle of lights amidst the mountains and forest, to the extent that he extolled:
The heavens above were clear, the stars twinkling, and the full moon resting upon the peak. From the summit, along both sides of the path leading to the Hermitipana station, the lamps gleamed like flaming torches through the night, resembling processions of pilgrims ascending, forming a chain of living sacred fire that linked the peak with the foot of the mountain.133.
Along the ascent, there are several facilities supporting pilgrims (dānasālās), offering places for rest, temporary lodging, medical assistance, and at times, food and water for those undertaking the pilgrimage. This tradition of hospitality is of great antiquity in Ceylon. The Mahāvamsa chronicle records that King Vijayabahu (1058–1114) enjoined the island’s inhabitants with the following admonition:
We should receive with generosity those pilgrims who come from afar; let no one suffer hardship, hunger, or thirst on the way to worship the footprint of the sages on Mount Samantakuta.134.
The king granted extensive rice fields to the village of Gilimalaya and other nearby regions so that abundant harvests might sustain offerings of food for visitors from distant lands. Furthermore,
133. William Skeen, Adam’s Peak: Legendary, Traditional, and Historic Notices of the Samanala and Srí-Páda, with a Descriptive Account of the Pilgrims’ Route from Colombo to the Sacred Foot-Print (Colombo: W. L. H. Skeen & Co., 1870).
134. Cūḷavaṃsa 60.64–67.
along the two routes of Kadatigama and Uva, he arranged for the construction of rest houses and rest areas for the benefit of the pilgrims.
4.3.3. Sama Chetiya Temple
The Sama Chetiya, or World Peace Pagoda, was constructed in 1976 under the direction of the eminent Japanese monk, Nichi Fuji. The white stūpa, strikingly radiant, stands out against the gray rocky escarpment behind it. This model of a Japanese peace pagoda is frequently found at major Buddhist sacred sites in India, such as Rājagṛha and Gṛdhrakūṭa (Vulture Peak).
The hemispherical white chetiya (stūpa) is a common architectural feature of temples in Sri Lanka. Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương together with the young novices of Pradeepaloka Vihāra, July 18, 2023.
4.3.4. Bhagava Cave
Approximately 150 feet below the summit, adjacent to a tea stall, lies the Bhagava Cave, which has served as a hermitage for ascetics over many centuries. On its wall is carved the image of a royal figure in an attitude of reverence, with hands joined in añjali. It is believed to represent King Nissankamalla (1187– 1196), with inscriptions indicating that the monarch personally
ascended Sri Pada to venerate the Sacred Footprint of the Buddha and made donations to the monastery situated there.
Another cave in close proximity on the slopes of Sri Pada, known as Divāguhā, is associated with the tradition that the Buddha himself paused and resided there during one of his missionary journeys to Ceylon.
4.3.5. Sacred Footprint of the Buddha on Sri Pada
What renders Sri Pada uniquely significant across religious traditions is not the mountain’s elevation or scenic beauty, but rather the enigmatic footprint impressed upon a massive stone slab at its summit, measuring almost six feet in length. This footprint has been variously interpreted within multiple faiths: Muslims and Christians regard it as the imprint of Adam; Hindus ascribe it to the god Śiva. Yet centuries before these traditions laid claim to the footprint, perhaps as early as the first century BCE, the Sinhalese firmly believed it to be the sacred impression of the Buddha Sākyamuni .
According to the Mahāvaṃsa chronicle, during the Buddha’s third visit to Sri Lanka, he traveled from Kelaniya to Sri Pada, where he left his sacred footprint upon the summit before departing towards Dīghavāpi. A local legend further relates that deities revealed to King Valagambha in a dream that the footprint on the stone was made by the Buddha himself.
Today, several shrines and bell towers stand atop Sri Pada. The resonant sound of bells is occasionally heard, struck by devout pilgrims in their prayers. A shrine dedicated to Bodhisattva Samanta (Samantabhadra) is situated nearby, adjacent to the stūpa enshrining the sacred rock with the Buddha’s footprint.
A Buddhist monk paying homage to the Sacred Footprint at Sri Pada.
For centuries, this sanctified stūpa housing the Buddha’s footprint has inspired countless pilgrims to undertake arduous journeys to the summit of Sri Pada. In earlier times, when dense forests and rugged terrain made access exceedingly difficult, without roads, stone steps, or the modern conveniences of rest houses, lighting, or shelters, pilgrimage was itself an act of devotion and sacrifice. To the Sinhalese Buddhist faithful, the Sacred Footprint constitutes an object of profound spiritual veneration, and visitors are thus enjoined to maintain silence and reverence in its presence.
4.3.6. Sunrise and View from the Sri Pada Summit
Whether viewed from land or sea, Sri Pada rises as a striking silhouette against the blue sky and the vast ocean. Sir James Emerson Tennent vividly described this unique grandeur:
The panorama of Adam’s Peak is unrivalled in magnificence; scarcely anywhere on earth can such a scene be found. Whether beheld from inland or from the ocean, the mountain stands in bold relief. From the summit, gazing northward and eastward, the pilgrim beholds the villages and cities encircling the Kandyan kingdom. To the west stretch vast golden plains, waving
with grain, intersected by rivers gleaming like silver threads, and further still, at the very horizon, the sun’s rays sparkle like diamonds upon the waters of the Indian Ocean.135.
Each morning, prior to sunrise, Sinhalese pilgrims and visitors alike gather on the eastern side of the summit, waiting for the first rays of dawn to emerge. They hold the devotional belief that the rising sun itself pays homage to the Buddha’s sacred footprint. At the moment of sunrise, the assembled throng joins in reverent prostration and utters in unison: “Sādhu! Sādhu! Sādhu!” (“Well done! Well done! Well done!”), welcoming the sun’s advent at Sri Pada. This ritual recalls the devotional practice of Indian devotees who immerse themselves in the waters of the Ganges at Vārāṇasī, offering libations at the break of day.
4.3.7. Ancient Iron Chains along the Stone Steps at Sri Pada
Descending towards Ratnapura, after one hundred steps the path becomes exceedingly steep, where gusts of wind could easily sweep a traveler off balance, posing serious danger. On the right- hand side, one can still observe massive iron chains fastened into the rock, originally installed as handholds by ancient builders to ensure the safety of pilgrims. For many centuries, Ratnapura was the sole access route to the summit of the mountain, and these chains provided essential support for devotees attempting the arduous ascent. Several ancient texts make reference to these iron chains, and according to legend, they were ordered to be installed by Alexander the Great (365–323 BCE). However, no historical evidence substantiates the claim that Alexander ever traveled as far south as Sri Lanka during his Asian campaigns.
4.3.8. Visitor Information for Sri Pada
Adam’s Peak (Sri Pada) has long been a mysterious and revered
135. Dhammika, Sri Pada, 109–119.
pilgrimage destination for multiple religions, particularly Buddhism. Each year, thousands of pilgrims from across the world journey to the island of Ceylon during the pilgrimage season, which typically begins in December and continues until the onset of the southwest monsoon in April. From May through October, the peak is often shrouded in clouds, and pilgrimage activity is considerably reduced.
Pilgrims and visitors may reach Hatton, a central Sri Lankan town, from Colombo, Kandy, Anurādhapura, or other major cities by bus. Hatton also lies along the Colombo–Kandy– Nuwara–Eliya railway line, making it accessible by train as well.
Along the Hatton route, roadside stalls sell food and beverages, though often at elevated prices due to the mountain’s remote location. Pilgrims are therefore advised to carry light provisions, drinking water, and even a pair of binoculars to better appreciate the distant panoramas. Warm clothing is essential, as temperatures can be markedly cold during the climb. The most rewarding ascent is undertaken at night, so that one may witness the sunrise from the summit. Despite the hardship and exertion required, the ascent is regarded as a spiritually transformative experience.
Along the way, small wind-swept kiosks sell pamphlets containing devotional poems, folk songs, and verses, which pilgrims often purchase to sing during the ascent. This practice reflects a longstanding Sinhalese tradition of communal chanting, offering both encouragement and joy during the arduous climb.
4.4. TIRIYAYA MOUNTAIN
4.4.1. Pilgrimage Features of Tiriyaya Mountain
• The legend of Girihandu Seya (Buddha’s Hair Relic)
- Girihandu Seya today
• Stairway with moonstones (Vatadage moonstones)
• Guardian deities: Nāgaraja muragals at Tiriyaya Mountain
• Man-made pond (Pokuna)
• Cylindrical stone pillars of the monastery complex
• Northern Tiriyaya monastery complex
• Tiriyaya Archaeological Museum
4.4.2. The Legend of Girihandu Seya (Buddha’s Hair Relic)
Perched on a rocky hill near the northeast coast, this ancient Buddhist site is traditionally regarded as one of the earliest stūpas in Sri Lanka. The climb itself is part of the experience, with forested surroundings and coastal views.
The Girihandu Seya, located in Tiriyaya village in the Trincomalee District of eastern Sri Lanka, is among the earliest known Buddhist stūpas on the island, traditionally dated to the fourth century BCE. It belongs to the formative period of Sri Lankan Buddhism.
The stūpa is said to have been constructed by the first lay disciples of the Buddha, the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika, to enshrine a sacred relic, specifically strands of the Buddha’s hair. According to Sri Lankan Buddhist tradition, they received hair relics of the Buddha shortly after his enlightenment. On returning to Sri Lanka, they are said to have enshrined these relics in a stūpa at Tiriyaya Mountain. That stūpa is identified with Girihandu Seya. This site is revered as Sri Lanka’s oldest stūpa with an eighth-century Sanskrit inscription at the site confirming its ancient origins.
Panoramic view of the circular Girihandu Seya Stūpa.136.
Girihandu Seya (the ancient stūpa on Tiriyaya Mountain) is located close to the village of Tiriyaya, a small Tamil fishing village near the coastal towns of Nilaveli and Uppuveli in Sri Lanka’s Trincomalee District. The village’s historical role as a key maritime trade hub, featuring an ancient port active since at least the sixth century BCE, likely explains the merchants’ presence and the stūpa’s establishment, blending early Buddhist heritage with the area’s long-standing seafaring and commercial significance along Sri Lanka’s eastern coast.
The Jātakas recount that after forty-nine days of meditation, which culminated in his enlightenment, the Buddha Sākyamuni spent the eighth week in serene abiding. It was then that he was approached by a caravan of 500 bullock carts belonging to two merchant brothers, Tapussa and Bhallika. Passing by, they stopped to make an offering of food to the Blessed One. This constituted the very first almsgiving offered to the Blessed One after his attainment of Buddhahood.
Having partaken of the meal, the Buddha delivered a discourse to the two merchant brothers, who, filled with joy and faith, earnestly sought refuge in the Two Jewels, the Buddha and the Dhamma (since the Sangha had not yet been established). Thus, they became the very first lay disciples of the Buddha.
- Mahesh Kularaatne, Panorama Girihadu Seya, Wikimedia Commons.
Tapussa and Bhallika offering alms bowls of rice to the Blessed One.137.
Moved by deep respect, Tapussa and Bhallika earnestly implored the Buddha:
“Venerable Sir, we humbly beseech your boundless compassion and loving-kindness to grant us a relic, so that we may enshrine it in our homeland, and there continually cultivate mindfulness, offering reverence and veneration.”138.
Moved by their devotion, the Buddha compassionately raised his right hand and plucked eight strands of hair, thus presenting them as hair relics to Tapussa and Bhallika. Overjoyed, the brothers enshrined the Buddha’s hair relics in a golden reliquary and brought them back to their homeland. Upon returning, they constructed a stūpa at the entrance of the town of Asitancana to venerate the eight strands of hair relics. Historical accounts assert that on the days of the fortnightly observance of the eight precepts, the stūpa enshrining the hair relics would radiate a luminous aura.
- Photo Dharma, Tapussa and Bhallika Give Food to Buddha, Wikimedia Commons.
138. Vinaya Piṭaka, Mahāvagga I.4, in The Book of the Discipline, trans. I.B. Horner, vol. 4 (London: Pāli Text Society, 1938–1966; reprint, 2000).
The Akasacetiya Stūpa.
In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa recounts a miraculous event at Akasacetiya Monastery, another name for Girihandu Seya. A young married woman from the nearby village of Vattakalaka, longing for a child, waited at home while her parents visited the monastery to hear the Dhamma and dedicate merit on her behalf.
Standing on her balcony in the moonlight, she turned her gaze towards the sacred monastery. From afar, she beheld monks and lay devotees, men and women alike, circumambulating the stūpa clockwise, offering flowers and incense and chanting in unison. Moved by the scene, she thought, “How fortunate it is to honor such a sacred shrine and hear these profound teachings!”139.
As she gazed at the Akasacetiya Stūpa, gleaming like a jewel amid the Tiriyaya hills, a profound joy suddenly welled up within her. In that instant, she felt herself lifted gently through the air and placed softly in the monastery courtyard. There, she joined the other devotees in walking mindfully around the stūpa and listening to the sacred chants. Soon afterward, her parents arrived and were stunned to find her present. “How did you get
- Buddhaghosa. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga, Chapter IV: “The Earth Kasina”).
Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli. 5th ed. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010.
here so quickly?” they asked in amazement. She recounted her miraculous experience, explaining that her swift arrival was due to the power of her genuine devotion.140.
At the Girihandu Seya site, an inscription in Sanskrit records the name of Girihandu Hill, affirming the longstanding belief of the Sinhalese people that the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika were the first lay disciples to enshrine the historical Buddha’s original hair relics at this stūpa.
4.4.3. Girihandu Seya Today
Girihandu Seya is a circular stūpa situated on Tiriyaya Hill, twenty-nine miles north of Trincomalee on the eastern coast of Sri Lanka. Access to the hilltop sanctuary is provided by a stone stairway consisting of 280 steps, extending one-third mile, leading to the stūpa complex.
The original Girihandu Seya Stūpa was relatively small and underwent enlargement during the eighth century CE. To the south of the stūpa, a Sanskrit inscription carved on the rock contains eleven lines, referencing the name of Girikandi Hill (Girihandu Seya at Tiriyaya) and recording the longstanding local belief that the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika were the first lay devotees to enshrine the original hair relics of the historical Buddha at this site.
Another inscription, dating to the reign of King Manavanna (circa 700 CE) and written in the Pallava Grantha script of South India, confirms the eighth-century reconstruction of Girihandu Seya. This period coincided with the influence of Pallava art in Tiriyaya and the inscription also indicates the presence and veneration of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva in Sri Lanka. These facts illustrate the transmission of Mahāyāna Buddhism from the Pallava kingdom of South India to Ceylon, along with the stylistic Pallava sculptural tradition.
- Ibid.
The Buddha taking hair relics.141.
Scholars surmise that maritime merchants were instrumental in introducing Mahāyāna Buddhism and sponsoring the construction of the Girihandu Seya Stūpa. The inscription was carved in the twenty-third year of King Sīlamegha of Simhala.
The Tiriyaya Stūpa is circular, constructed from stone within a vatadage (circular relic house), with entrances aligned to the four cardinal directions. Access is facilitated by stairways adorned with stone guard posts (muragala) and balustrades (korawak gala), exemplifying Sinhalese architectural principles. Historically, the stūpa housed four Buddha images oriented towards each cardinal point, allowing devotees approaching from any direction to pay homage. The stūpa is also referred to as “Akasachetiya,” or “Heavenly Relic,” reflecting its elevated
141. Penang Malaysia, Taking Hair Relics, Wikimedia Commons.
position atop Tiriyaya Hill, with panoramic views of the sky reminiscent of a celestial realm.
Buddhist stūpa on Tiriyaya Mountain.
To the east of the Tiriyaya Stūpa remains a white Buddha image in the meditative samadhi mudra, presently enclosed in a protective glass and canopy. Archaeological surveys conducted in 1951 reported that vandals had previously broken into the stūpa, looting several relics, leaving only the white Buddha image at the main entrance.
The inner enclosure around the stūpa contains sixteen octagonal stone pillars, while the outer perimeter features a nine-foot-high wall constructed from finely hewn monolithic stones, forming a curved circular boundary. The vatadage platform is paved with bright orange stones and rises four feet above the surrounding ground. The diameter of the Tiriyaya circular stūpa complex measures seventy-eight feet, with the central stūpa itself spanning thirty-two feet in diameter. This architectural style closely resembles that of Ambasthala Dagoba at Mihintale, as well as Thuparama and Lankarama Stūpas in Anurādhapura.
Maluva background in Vatadage.
In Sinhala, circular Buddhist structures are known as “vatadages,” literally meaning “circular stūpas.” The Tiriyaya vatadage represents one of the most well-preserved examples of the original vatadage design, exemplifying Sinhalese architectural artistry from the Anurādhapura period.
The Tiriyaya archaeological complex encompasses, in addition to the Girihandu Seya (Stūpa), the foundations of a ruined monastery, stone columns, stairways, ponds, stone bridges, and several scattered caves. Two of these caves contain Brahmi inscriptions dated before the Common Era, while the remaining cave dates to the first century CE. The Nithupathpana Pond is believed to have been constructed by King Vasabha (67–111 CE) and later restored by King Vijayabahu I (1055–1110 CE).
Excavations beneath the current stūpa have revealed an older, smaller foundation, indicating the site’s long history of reconstruction, far predating the eighth-century vatadage platform. This evidence confirms that the circular stūpa has undergone multiple renovations and that Tiriyaya has served as a sacred site of Buddhist veneration since the earliest phases of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, with the surviving architectural remains dating to the late Anurādhapura period.
4.4.4. Staircase with Moonstones (Vatadage Moonstones)
The vatadage features four entrances, each approached by a stone stairway. At the base of each stairway is a pair of elegantly curved makara balustrades, with the tread terminating in a semicircular stone slab, known as a moonstone.
The moonstone bases at the Vatadage.
These moonstones are intricately carved with four concentric bands of lotus petals and other decorative motifs, exemplifying the refined Sinhalese artistic tradition. The lotus motif on these classical moonstones, placed immediately beneath the first step of each stairway, symbolizes the purity and spiritual clarity of Buddhism. Devotees are thus reminded to cultivate a calm and serene mind before entering the central shrine or stūpa.
4.4.5. Guardian Deities: Nāgaraja Muragals at Tiriyaya
Flanking the stairway entrances are two guardian figures, known as murugal deities, tasked with protecting the sanctum. The term “nāgaraja” denotes a serpent deity in anthropomorphic form These statues are depicted wearing a headdress of entwined cobras, one hand holding a lotus stem while the other supports a water vessel. Their attire is richly adorned with decorative patterns and jewelry, with bracelets encircling the arms and legs.
Guardian Deities: Nāgaraja Muragals.
The Tiriyaya site contains multiple nāgaraja muragal statues, reflecting the stylistic influence of South Indian Pallava art of the seventh and eight centuries CE. These representations constitute some of the earliest examples of guardian deity reliefs in Sri Lanka and became iconic motifs in Sinhalese temple ornamentation during the Anurādhapura period.
4.4.6. Man-Made Pond (Pokuna)
Along the ascent to Tiriyaya Hill, a side path leads to the man- made reservoir known as Pokuna Sacred Pond. This expansive and deep-water body remains full year-round, even during periods of drought or the arid summer months.
Historically, the reservoir served as a bathing and cleansing site for monks of the nearby ancient monastic complexes. Today, it is regarded as a sacred pool. Local devotees frequently use its waters to wash hands and feet, performing ritual purification and attaining a sense of spiritual cleanliness.
Pokuna Sacred Pond.
4.4.7. Cylindrical Stone Pillars of the Monastery Complex
Continuing from the Pokuna Pond along the narrow forest path leading upward, one encounters numerous stone pillars scattered along the route. These pillars are remnants of the foundational structures of the medieval monastic complex. Of particular note are the monolithic cylindrical columns, designed to replicate the classical Kandyan-style wooden columns characteristic of traditional Sri Lankan architecture. These stone pillars exemplify both the technical skill and aesthetic sensibilities of ancient Sri Lankan builders.
4.4.8. Northern Tiriyaya Monastery Complex
To the north of the courtyard lie the remains of monastic cells, typically square in plan measuring six feet on each side. The simplicity of these structures, with minimal decorative elements, emphasizes their functional monastic purpose. The floors consist of large, polished stone slabs, which provided a durable and even surface for daily monastic activities.
Foundations of the monastery at Tiriyaya.
4.4.9. Tiriyaya Archaeological Museum
A local museum at Tiriyaya houses the artifacts unearthed at the Girihandu Seya complex, with many relatively well-preserved Buddhist relics dating from the Anurādhapura period.
The Girihandu Seya Vatadage and the museum together constitute the principal attractions of eastern Sri Lanka, offering both the classical circular architecture of the stūpa and the archaeological remnants, including elephant bones and other significant relics on display for scholarly study and devotional engagement.
Though the Tiriyaya archaeological complex is modest in scale compared to Anurādhapura or Polonnaruwa, it is of profound spiritual significance, as it is closely associated with the Buddha and his first lay disciples. Devout Buddhists regard this site as indispensable for pilgrimage.
4.4.10. Visitor Information for Girihandu Seya
Historically, travelers journeying from the Trincomalee District to the Girihandu Seya in Tiriyaya Village were required to cross two ferry points. However, following the conclusion of the civil conflict with the Tamil Tigers in May 2009, a modern bridge was constructed, replacing the ferry crossings. This infrastructure
has since facilitated access for both local residents and pilgrims to the sacred site of Tiriyaya.
The Girihandu Seya Rajamahā Vihāra is situated twenty-eight miles north of central Trincomalee and can be reached by rental car, tuk-tuk (three-wheeled vehicle), taxi, or bus. From the Trincomalee bus terminal or the nearby beaches of Nilaveli and Uppuveli, travelers may take a bus to Pulmodai (thirty minutes per trip, fare less than $1). From Pulmodai, a tuk-tuk or taxi ride of three miles leads to the base of Girihandu Seya Hill. From the foot of the hill, a half-mile walk ascends to the archaeological complex of Girihandu Seya.
Entrance fees for foreign visitors are $1.60. The archaeological site is open daily from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.
Girihandu Seya is located atop a breezy hill, offering panoramic views from the summit. Pilgrims begin their ascent passing by the Nithupathpana reservoir, climbing the ancient stone steps, and traversing numerous caves along the route. The surrounding landscape features dense, wild forests and expansive, verdant fields characteristic of Trincomalee District.
Tiriyaya pillar architecture.
Stone steps up Girihandu Seya Hill.142.
Nilaveli fishing village beach.143.
- Jeewana20, Staircase to the Ancient Temple, Wikimedia Commons.
143. Anton 17, Nilaveli Beach, Wikimedia Commons
Hương Sen Buddhist Temple Pilgrimage Delegation with monks at Wijithapara Rajamahā Vihāra, Matale, Sri Lanka, July 10, 2023.
Upon reaching Tiriyaya Village, in addition to the sacred Girihandu Seya Vatadage, visitors may rest and explore the fishing villages of Nilaveli and Uppuveli, which are noted for their pristine beaches, towering coconut palms, and bustling fishing activity.
***
Chapter 5
The Great Buddha Statues
ri Lanka, as a devout Buddhist country revering the Triple Gem, has long been distinguished by the proliferation of temples, the preservation of scriptures, and the creation of sacred images. As an island endowed with mountains, forests, and coastal plains rich in natural resources, it has nurtured the tradition of carving monumental Buddha statues into living rock
from ancient times to the present day.
This chapter introduces some of the most notable rock-hewn Buddha statues of Sri Lanka:
• Avukana Rock Buddha Statue (Avukana, North Central Province)
• Sasseruwa Buddha Statue (Ras Vihāra)
• Buduruwagala Rock Sanctuary (Monaragala, Uva Province)
• Maligawila Buddha Statue (Moneragala, Uva Province)
• Thanthirimale Buddha Statue
• Bodhisattva Samantabhadra Statue at Weligama
- Rock-Cut Buddha Statues of Gal Vihāra, Polonnaruwa (North Central Province)
5.1. AVUKANA ROCK BUDDHA STATUE
The standing Avukana Buddha, also known as Avukana Pilimaya (Avukana Ancient Rock Temple, rises to a height of more than forty feet and is regarded today as the tallest and most iconic stone-carved Buddha image in Sri Lanka.
The statue derives its name from its location at Avukana in the North Central Province, situated 108 miles from Colombo. It is celebrated as a masterpiece of Ceylonese artistic and sculptural achievement. According to historical tradition, the statue was commissioned during the reign of King Dhatusena in the fifth century CE.
From left: Mrs.Viên Phương, Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương,
Śrāmaṇerī Viên Lành, and Venerable Sumedha
at the Avukana Buddha Statue, the tallest Buddha statue in Sri Lanka, July 10, 2023.
5.1.1. Visitor Information for the Avukana Buddha Statue
From Colombo, Avukana is accessible by train, as most railway lines to Anurādhapura pass through nearby stations. Travelers may also take taxis or buses via the Dambulla–Anurādhapura
(A9) highway, branching off at Kekirawa to the Talawa road. After three miles along the Talawa route, turning left at the Ehalagama junction leads directly to the Avukana Ancient Rock Temple, where the monumental statue is enshrined.
5.2. SASSERUWA BUDDHA STATUE
Located only seven miles from Aukana is another colossal Buddha image of nearly identical dimensions, the Sasseruwa Buddha statue situated at Ras Vihāra in the North Central Province, 116 miles from Colombo.
Rising to a height of forty-two feet, the statue depicts the abhaya mudrā gesture of fearlessness. The monument forms part of the ancient monastery known as Ras Vihāra. Over the centuries, the statue has been referred to by various names, including Reswehera, Ras Vihāra, Sesuruwa, and Sasseruwa.
A well-known legend recounts that the statues of Aukana and Sasseruwa originated from a contest between master and pupil, known as guru-gola. The term guru means teacher, while gola means disciple.
The Sasseruwa Buddha statue.
According to the tale, the master undertook the Avukana statue, while the pupil carved the Sasseruwa statue. They agreed that whoever completed his statue first would signal the other by ringing a bell.
The master finished his work first and rang the bell. Upon hearing it, the pupil realized his defeat and immediately ceased work, leaving the Sasseruwa statue unfinished. Thus, the story humorously explains the incomplete state of the monument.
View of the Sasseruwa Buddha statue.
Another tradition, however, asserts that the Sasseruwa statue was conceived as a prototype for the Avukana Buddha, both executed by the same master sculptor.144.
While the Avukana statue is undeniably more refined in detail, many visitors find the Sasseruwa image to possess a deeper sense of serenity and composure with a tranquil and contemplative aura.
The Avukana statue, almost fully detached from the rock face and carved in the round, contrasts with the Sasseruwa Buddha, which remains a high-relief carving still embedded in a rectangular rock niche. The right hand is raised in abhaya
144. “Sasseruwa Buddha Statue,” Lanka Excursions Holidays, accessed April 10, 2026, https://www.lanka-excursions-holidays.com/sasseruwa-buddha.html
mudrā, the gesture of granting fearlessness, while the left hand rests at the side.
The Sasseruwa Buddha statue.
By contrast, the Avukana Buddha, though with the right hand raised at shoulder height and palm turned inward, is interpreted as forming āśīsa mudrā, a variant of the abhaya gesture. Moreover, the carving of Avukana demonstrates superior precision and refinement compared to the more austere relief of Sasseruwa.
The ancient Ras Vihāra Rock Monastery and its towering Sasseruwa Buddha lie at the remote end of a cul-de-sac, making it less frequented than Avukana. Yet, the site offers much to visitors beyond the statue itself. Ras Vihāra also preserves a sacred Bodhi tree believed to descend from one of the oldest Bodhi trees in Sri Lanka and several rock caves decorated with Kandyan-style murals depicting wildlife such as elephants, monkeys, tigers, and birds.
Ras Vihāra is a representative monastic complex from the Anurādhapura period, surrounded by wilderness. Declared a wildlife sanctuary, the area allows visitors to stay for short periods, offering both religious pilgrimage and opportunities for eco-tourism in a pristine natural environment.
5.3. BUDURUWAGALA ROCK SANCTUARY
Buduruwagala is an ancient Buddhist rock sanctuary distinguished by a group of seven colossal figures dating to the tenth century CE, associated with the Mahāyāna tradition. Located four miles from Wellawaya in Monaragala District, Uva Province. in southeastern Sri Lanka, the site once served as a hermitage for reclusive Buddhist monks devoted to meditation and disengaged from worldly concerns.
The name “Buduruwagala” derives from the Sinhala words budu (Buddha), ruva (image), and gala (rock), meaning “the rock of Buddhist images.” The massive rock measures 300 feet in length and seventy feet in height. On its eastern face are carved seven figures of the Buddha and bodhisattvas.
The Buduruwagala Rock Sanctuary.
From a distance, pilgrims are struck by the imposing image of the Buddha Sākyamuni, standing fifty-one feet tall, depicted in the abhaya mudrā gesture of fearlessness. The Buddha figure is adorned in a robe with deeply incised pleats, once painted in ochre to resemble the monastic saṅghāṭi, traces of which still faintly survive the passage of centuries.
The fifty-two-foot-high standing Buddha image at Buduruwagala.145.
To the left of the central Buddha are three figures: in the middle stands Avalokiteśvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, measuring twenty-four feet in height, flanked by Bhṛkutī (Pāṇḍaravāsinī) and the goddess Tārā Vajrapāṇi.
On the right-hand side of the rock face, at its extremity, are further images—the future Buddha Maitreya, additional forms of Tārā (indicating tantric influence), as well as Hindu deities such as Śiva, Viṣṇu, or Sahampati Brahmā, reflecting syncretic traditions. Sacred symbols such as lotuses, aureoles, and even a carved torch enhance the ensemble. One particularly notable carving is a torch-shaped relief nearly three feet wide and four feet high, with a hollow for pouring oil. Pilgrims continue to honor this relic by lighting lamps with mustard oil as offerings.
- Pasan, Buduruwagala Buddha Image, Wikimedia Commons.
Central Maitreya figure flanked by two Tārā goddesses.
Close-up of the Buddha image at Buduruwagala.
5.3.1. Visitor Information for Buduruwagala
Buduruwagala is located five miles from Wellawaya. From the main road, a red-earth track two miles long leads to the sanctuary, passing through serene rural landscapes. The site is considered a sacred place of pilgrimage, attracting visitors, especially Buddhist devotees, who come to worship, circumambulate, and admire the Mahāyāna-influenced rock carvings.
5.3.2. Udawalawe National Park
On the way to the rock-cut Buddhist images at Buduruwagala, visitors often take the opportunity to explore a renowned natural site nearby: Udawalawe National Park, located only one hour’s drive by car from Buduruwagala.
Wild elephants wandering through Udawalawe National Park.146.
Established June 30, 1972, the park encompasses an area of 119 square miles, with the Udawalawe Reservoir as its most prominent geographical feature.147. The reserve lies within the
146. wsThushansenevirathna, Udawalawe Elephants, Wikimedia Commons.
147. Udawalawe National Park. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udawalawe_ National_Park
dry zone, straddling the Sabaragamuwa and Uva Provinces in southern Sri Lanka. It was originally created to provide a sanctuary for displaced wildlife affected by the construction of the reservoir on the Walawe River, as well as to protect the surrounding watershed.
A mother elephant and her calf approaching visitors at Udawalawe National Park.
The park was created both to provide a sanctuary for wild animals displaced by the construction of the reservoir on the Walawe River and to protect the watershed surrounding it.
Situated 103 miles from Colombo, Udawalawe is considered one of the most important habitats for waterbirds and most notably, it is famous for its large herds of Sri Lankan elephants. The park has become a highly popular eco-tourism destination. According to tourism statistics, Udawalawe ranks as the third most visited national attraction in Sri Lanka, drawing large numbers of both domestic and international visitors.
5.4. MALIGAWILA ROCK BUDDHA STATUE
The Maligawila Buddha Statue stands thirty-seven feet high,
carved in the varada mudra (gesture of generosity). The right
hand is raised slightly forward with the palm open, fingers extended, symbolizing generosity and welcome. The left arm is bent at the elbow with the palm turned outward towards the viewer. The five extended fingers represent the five perfections: generosity, morality, patience, energy, and concentration. This mudra embodies offering, charity, compassion, and the Buddha’s profound vow to dedicate himself to the liberation of humankind. The statue was hewn from a single limestone block weighing 100 tons and rising to a total height of forty-eight feet. It was commissioned by King Aggabodhi in the seventh century CE as an act of royal devotion.
In 1951, the statue was rediscovered in the forest with its head broken and in many fragments. Restoration began in 1980 under the direction of then-President Ranasinghe Premadasa with the technical leadership of Mr. Kirthi Samarasuriya, founder of Petrokem Lanka Ltd. He introduced epoxy resin technology to bind the broken pieces, after which the statue was carefully reconstructed to its present state.
The Cūḷavaṃsa chronicle records that King Aggabodhi, ruler of seventh-century Ceylon, established a clinic for the blind called Image Hospital, where a great stone image of the Buddha, referred to as “The Great One,” was enshrined.148. Archaeologists believe that this site corresponds to the Ariyakara Vihāra mentioned in the chronicles.
The Maligawila Buddha stands at the center of a courtyard measuring eighty feet on each side, enclosed by a four-foot- thick wall. At the entrance steps leading to the image platform is a distinctive moonstone (sandakadapahana), a unique feature of ancient Sri Lankan Buddhist architecture.
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, 131–134.
The Maligawila Buddha statue.
Approximately 1,640 feet from the Maligawila Buddha stands a colossal statue of Bodhisattva Maithree Natha, commonly known as the Dambegoda Bodhisattva, an embodiment of Avalokiteśvara. This figure measures thirty-two feet in height and weighs forty tons.
The village of Maligawila, covering some 400 acres, is thus home to two monumental stone icons, the Buddha Sākyamuni and Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, along with the foundations of the Image Hospital and other archaeological remains.
Together with the Avukana and Buduruwagala Buddha statues, the Maligawila Buddha is regarded as one of the most outstanding examples of a standing Buddha image in the tradition of ancient Sri Lankan sculpture.
A woman and her children reverently touching the feet of the Maligawila Buddha Statue.
5.4.1. Visitor Information for Maligawila
Maligawila lies 154 miles from Colombo in Uva Province, Moneragala District. Both the Maligawila Buddha and the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara statues attract a significant number of pilgrims and visitors annually.
The Maligawila Buddha statue.149.
5.5. THANTHIRIMALE ROCK BUDDHA STATUE
Tanthirimale is an ancient Buddhist rock sanctuary located twenty-five miles northwest of the ancient capital, Anurādhapura.
- Hasitha D Wickramasinghe, Maligawila Buddha, Wikimedia Commons.
Thanthirimale cave.150.
The principal monument at the site is the Reclining Buddha of Thanthirimale, a colossal rock-cut image of the Buddha lying on his right side in parinibbāṇa, measuring forty feet in length. The statue, carved into the dark granite outcrops of the surrounding countryside, is generally dated to the tenth century CE. It lies near the main highway that connects Anurādhapura to Mannar.
The Reclining Buddha and the Mahinda Stūpa.
At Thanthirimale, pilgrims can venerate not only the great reclining image of the Buddha but also the white stūpa known as the Mahinda Stūpa situated on the summit of the rocky hill.
150. Kasun Perera 18, Thanthirimale Cave, Wikimedia Commons.
On the opposite side of the same rock outcrop, one encounters another notable carving: a seated Buddha in meditation posture (dhyāna mudrā), eight feet high, cut into the rock face.
A seated Buddha in meditation posture.
Within a square frame, the Buddha sits serenely upon a lotus pedestal richly ornamented with floral motifs. Below the pedestal, two kneeling lions serve as guardians, while above, two deities holding vajras (ritual thunderbolts) stand in protective stance. The iconography and architectural style bear strong affinities with the Buddhist art of southern India.
Also located on the site is the white hemispherical stūpa of Thanthirimale, standing prominently against the blue sky. The Tanthirimale Raja Mahā Vihāra is traditionally believed to have been established in the third century BCE. The site is sanctified as one of the resting places of the great missionary monk Mahinda Thera, who introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka, along with his monastic retinue from India. It is further associated with Therī Sanghamittā, who brought a sapling of the sacred Jaya Śrī Mahā Bodhi tree from Bodhgayā to Anurādhapura. Tradition holds that she rested at Thanthirimale on her journey.
The Thanthirimale stone cave with a Buddha statue.
The white hemispherical stūpa of Thanthirimale, standing prominently against the blue sky.151.
Some ponds among the rock formations retain water throughout the year, nourishing the vegetation of this rocky hill region. There is also an archaeological museum at Thanthirimale that exhibits artifacts discovered at the site.
In the 1960s, Buddhist monks restored the white circular stūpa
151. Anjitha Senarath, Thanthirimale, Wikimedia Commons.
and the surrounding landscape, making the place increasingly solemn and serene. Each year, large numbers of pilgrims come to visit.
5.5.1. Visitor Information for Thanthirimale Rock Buddha
Statue
Thanthirimale is located thirty-one from Anurādhapura. Modest accommodations are available for those wishing to remain longer for meditation and spiritual practice, benefiting from the pure mountain air and serene surroundings. Day visitors should inquire in advance about return bus schedules to Anurādhapura. Those traveling by private car will find the journey considerably more convenient.
Reclining Buddha at the Thanthirimale stone cave.
5.6. SAMANTABHADRA BODHISATTVA STATUE IN WELIGAMA
The Bodhisattva Samantabhadra statue at Weligama is a rock relief, larger than life-size, dated to around the ninth century CE. It is believed to have been part of the ancient Aggrabodhi Vihāra Monastery. This is one of the best-preserved statues of its kind, constructed during the Sri Lankan period and reflecting
the influence of Mahāyāna Buddhist artistic traditions.
The Bodhisattva Samantabhadra statue at Weligama.
In China, a country deeply rooted in the Mahāyāna tradition, four sacred mountains are renowned as Bodhisattva abodes: Mount Wutai for Mañjuśrī, Mount Emei for Samantabhadra, Mount Jiuhua for Kṣitigarbha, and Mount Putuo for Avalokiteśvara. Similarly, in Sri Lanka, the Weligama statue is venerated as a representation of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, symbolizing the socially engaged bodhisattva ideal of alleviating suffering in the world, in line with Mahāyāna principles.
According to local legend, King Kustharāja, who suffered from a skin disease, journeyed from a distant land to Sri Lanka in search of a cure. After praying to Bodhisattva Samantabhadra at Weligama, he was healed. Thereafter, the site gained sacred status, drawing many devotees who come to pray.
The statue of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, weathered and covered with moss, stands amidst a grove of ancient trees. Set within a square frame surmounted by a rounded arch, the Bodhisattva stands upright in dignified posture, with the right hand raised, palm open outward, and the left hand held in a fist. His long robe, secured with a belt, along with armlets, a necklace, and a crown, are all finely carved with delicate craftsmanship. His
compassionate gaze looks downward in benevolence towards sentient beings.
5.6.1. Visitor Information for Weligama
Weligama lies along the main coastal road, easily accessible by train, bus, or car. From Colombo, Weligama is seventeen miles from Galle and nine miles from Matara. From the town center, one can follow the main road westward and walk fifteen minutes to reach the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra statue at Weligama.
5.7. GAL VIHĀRA ROCK BUDDHA STATUE IN POLONNARUWA
The Gal Vihāra cave shrine measures eighty-nine feet in length and thirty-three feet in height, and contains four carved Buddha images (standing, seated in meditation, and reclining in parinibbāṇa) sculpted from variegated granite, remarkably well preserved. These were carved during the reign of King Parākramabāhu (1153–1186 CE) and are located in the northern city of Polonnaruwa. Hence, they are sometimes referred to as the “four northern stone Buddha statues.”
Among the four, the twenty-three foot-high standing Buddha, positioned on a lotus pedestal (padmāsana), is considered unique, with a meditative expression and arms crossed. Some archaeologists suggest that it may depict the Venerable Ānanda rather than the Buddha himself.
The reclining Buddha, forty-six feet long, portrays the Blessed One entering parinibbāṇa, radiating serene transcendence and supreme calm. The two seated Buddha images, one outside the cave and one within, are carved from single granite blocks, featuring vajrāsana thrones, canopies, floral motifs, lions, celestial beings, and halos in full ornamental detail.
This is a masterpiece of medieval Sri Lankan art. It is undeniable that the sculptors of Gal Vihāra possessed extraordinary skill and expertise, surpassing many other traditions of stone carving. The statues convey a lifelike presence, as though transmitting the very enlightenment of the Buddha to those fortunate enough to behold them. For this reason, Gal Vihāra has been inscribed by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site.
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, Bhikkhunī Duc Tri, Bhikkhunī Vien Bao, Śrāmaṇerī Vien Lanh, and Bhikkhunī Vien Dao respectfully paying homage at the Gal Vihāra Rock Temple, July 12, 2023.
5.8. VISITOR INFORMATION FOR GAL VIHĀRA
From Polonnaruwa city, Gal Vihāra is three miles away. Travel northwest along the A11, Colombo Road, towards Janapada Mawatha. Continue until reaching Gallambawa Road, where Gal Vihāra is located. Clear signposts are displayed along the route, making the site easy to access.
Prayer at the Gal Vihāra Rock Temple, July 12, 2023.
***
Chapter 6
Sri Lanka’s Ancient Great Monasteries
The temple roof shelters the soul of the nation, A way of life inherited from the ancestors.
“Remembering the Temple”
Poet Huyền Không
eylon, a land with a long-standing Buddhist tradition, is interwoven with sacred Sinhalese architectural monuments. When one speaks of temples and stūpas, it is understood as referring to places where images of the Buddha are enshrined, where practitioners cultivate the path of liberation through morality, concentration, and wisdom, and where monks, nuns, and lay devotees find spiritual refuge. Buddhism, with its various traditions, Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna, among
others, has given rise to a diversity of architectural styles.
Map of Sri Lanka.152.
Sinhalese temples, however, primarily follow the traditional Theravāda design, deeply influenced by the ancient northern Indian architectural forms that came to Sri Lanka as early as the third century BCE, when Buddhism first took root on the island. These temples embody profound spiritual, historical, educational, artistic, and religious values.
This chapter introduces several representative ancient monasteries of Sri Lanka:
• Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra
• Muhudu Mahā Vihāra Temple
• Medirigiriya Vatadageya Great Circular Stūpa
• Nalanda Gedige Ancient Temple
• Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa)
- Kalindu2001, Sri Lanka Map, Wikimedia Commons.
6.1. KELANIYA RAJA MAHĀ VIHĀRA
The Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra, also known as Kalaniya or Kelaniya Temple, is revered as the site visited by Sākyamuni Buddha after his enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in India. It is believed that the Blessed One came to Sri Lanka to proclaim his message of happiness and deliverance to the Sinhalese people, and he once stayed at this very place.
Panoramic view of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra, Colombo.153.
6.1.1. Ancient History and Legends of Kelaniya
In ancient times, Kelaniya was known as the Kingdom of Kalyani Pattanam, an independent city that served as the predecessor of modern Colombo. It was a major transit port and a meeting point for merchants from south and southeast Asia. Numerous foreign ships entered Sri Lanka through the mouth of the Kelaniya River, from where goods were transported to every corner of the island.
The history of Kelaniya Vihāra dates to around 500 BCE, associated with the first and third visits of the Buddha to Sri Lanka. During his first visit, the Buddha, accompanied by a retinue of arahants, was received with great reverence by the
153. Jorge Lascar, Kelaniya Stupa, Wikimedia Commons.
king, nobles, and the people of Ceylon.
At that time, a fierce conflict had arisen between two Nāga chieftains, Chulodara and Mahodara, over a jeweled throne. The Buddha intervened as a mediator, reconciling the disputing parties through his wisdom and compassion. In gratitude, the Nāgas offered the Blessed One a magnificent jeweled stone seat and invited him to sit upon it while turning the Wheel of Dhamma.
The jeweled marble seat reverently offered to the Blessed One, Sākyamuni Buddha.154.
According to the Mahāvaṃsa chronicle, in the eighth year after enlightenment, the Buddha visited the Kingdom of Kelaniya at the invitation of King Maniakkhika, a ruler of the Nāga clan.155. On that occasion, the Buddha again mediated peace between the
- Photo Dharma, Buddha and the Naga Throne, Wikimedia Commons.
155. “Kelaniya Raja Maha Viharaya,” AmazingLanka.com, accessed March 31, 2026, https://amazinglanka.com/wp/en/kelaniya/
two Nāga kings, Culodara and Mahodara. King Maniakkhika, who was the maternal uncle of Nāga Mahodara, was also present at the Battle of Nāgadīpa.
The Buddha arrived at Kelaniya accompanied by five hundred bhikkhus and expounded the Dhamma to the king and his people. From Kelaniya, the Blessed One proceeded to the sanctuary of the deity Sumana Saman on Mount Samanthakuta, where he left the imprint of his sacred foot. This hallowed site is known today as Sri Pāda (Adam’s Peak).156.
On the eighth year after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha visited the kingdom in Kelaniya on the invitation of King Maniakkhika of the Nāga (Cobra) tribe. The king had extended this invitation at the Buddha’s second visit to country which was to settle a battle between the two Nāga kings, Culodara and Mahodara over a gem-studded throne at Nāga Deepa. King Maniakkhika, the Nāga king of Kalyani, who was the maternal uncle to Nāga Mahodara, had come to Nāga Deepa to support the battle.
According the chronicles, the Buddha visited Kelaniya with 500 bhikkhus and taught the Dhamma to the king and his people on the spot where the temple stands today. From Kalaniya the Buddha proceeded to the domain of the deity Sumana Saman at the mountain of Samanthakuta, now known as Sri Pada.
During the Blessed One’s third visit to Sri Lanka, it is said that the Buddha bathed in the Kelani River at the very site where the present Kelaniya Monastery now stands. From that time onward, the Kelani River became profoundly sacred and of great spiritual significance to the local people. Thereafter, the Buddha delivered a sermon to the king and the inhabitants of the region within the grounds of this temple.
- Please see Chapter 4 in this book, Section 4.3,” Sacred Footprint on Sri Pada Mountain (Adam’s Peak). “
In commemoration of this unique and auspicious event, the king ordered the construction of a stūpa precisely on the spot where the Buddha had seated himself and expounded the Dhamma. According to tradition, Yatthalaya Tissa, a nephew of King Devanampiya Tissa, was the royal patron who made the offering to build the stūpa at Kelaniya, intended to enshrine the jeweled Dhamma seat upon which the Blessed One, the teacher of gods and men, had uttered his lion’s roar, showering the world with the rain of Dhamma.
The Sinhalese chronicle Mahāvaṃsa records this sacred
occasion as follows:
On the second auspicious day of the full-moon festival of Vesak, the Blessed One, having donned his robe and taken his alms bowl, went to the land of Kalyani, the kingdom of Maniakkhika. Sitting beneath a tree upon a jeweled throne (the site later enshrined as the Kalyani Cetiya), together with a community of bhikkhus, the Buddha delivered a discourse on the Dhamma. The Nāga king and his retinue reverently offered to the Buddha and the Sangha the finest foods, both solid and soft, drawn from the bounty of nature.
The Vanquisher, prince of the wise, forthwith putting on his robe and taking his almsbowl went to the Kalyani country, the habitation of Maniakkhika. Under a canopy decked with gems, raised upon the spot where afterwards the Kalyani cetiya was built, he took his place, together with the brotherhood of bhikkhus, upon a precious throne seat. And, greatly rejoicing, the Nāga king with his following served celestial food, both hard and soft, to the king of truth, the conqueror, with his followers...157.
- Mahāvaṃsa, chap. 1 (“The Visit of the Tathāgata”), trans. Wilhelm Geiger, assisted by Mabel Haynes Bode (London: Pāli Text Society, 1912; repr., Oxford University Press, 1912), describing the Buddha’s visit to Kalyani (Kelaniya).
Stūpa and main hall at Kelaniya.
During this third missionary journey from India to Ceylon, the Buddha also visited the sacred mountain of Adam’s Peak, a towering summit in central Sri Lanka rising to 7,359 feet, where he left the imprint of his sacred footprint.158. Today, this holy site remains among the most venerated pilgrimage destinations, deeply revered by both the Sinhalese faithful and devotees from abroad, who come to pay homage and contemplate its sanctity.
Front view of the Kelaniya Mahābodhi Temple.
- Please see Chapter 4 of this book, “Sacred Buddhist Rock Mountains.”
6.1.2. History of Kelaniya
It is difficult to trace the exact origins of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra or to identify its founding master, who first established the temple in the fifth century BCE, as historical records have been lost over the course of time. However, according to the Mahāvaṃsa chronicle, after the arrival of the Arahant Mahinda, the son of Emperor Aśoka, in Ceylon in 307 BCE, Prince Uttiya, the elder brother of King Devanampiyatissa, undertook the restoration of Kelaniya Vihāra and built additional monastic dwellings (sanghawasa) for the Buddhist Sangha. This suggests that the Kelaniya Vihāra must have existed prior to that period.
Over the centuries, many Sinhalese kings and benefactors contributed to the repeated restorations of the temple. During the fourteenth century, under the Kotte Kingdom, Kelaniya entered its golden age. It became a flourishing spiritual center where numerous monks cultivated the path of meditation and wisdom. The kings of the Kotte dynasty generously supported its renovation and even built their summer palace in the city of Kelaniya. During the reign of King Dutthagamani, historical records mention that more than 500 monks resided and practiced within the precincts of Kelaniya Vihāra.
The growth of Buddhism in Kelaniya seems to have developed independently from that of other regions of the island. It is likely that Buddhism was brought directly from India, rather than being transmitted from the ancient capital of Anurādhapura.
In the sixteenth century (beginning in 1505), a civil war erupted within the kingdom, creating an opportunity for Portuguese invaders to interfere in the internal affairs of the Kotte Kingdom. This marked one of the darkest eras in the history of Buddhism on the island. The Portuguese, driven by a mission to Christianize the population of this Buddhist land, destroyed most of the Sinhalese temples and confiscated or desecrated Buddhist relics and sacred artifacts of immense historical and spiritual value.
Their rule was so harsh and oppressive that the King of Kotte was forced to flee and go into hiding.
In 1557, King Dhammapala, a puppet ruler under Portuguese control, was compelled to surrender Kelaniya Temple along with the three-storied Daladage Stūpa, which enshrined the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha, as payment for Portuguese military aid. The Portuguese plundered and destroyed whatever they could seize. The Daladage Stūpa and the seven-storied Kithsirimevanpaya at Kelaniya were razed to the ground and vanished completely.
The five-story royal palace in Kelaniya was converted into a Christian church, and in 1575, Captain Deyasen de Melo set fire to Kelaniya Vihāra, reducing it to ashes. All Buddhist monks and lay followers who resisted Portuguese domination were brutally massacred. The faithful were forbidden to visit temples, and the once-majestic Kelaniya Monastery gradually fell into ruin, becoming a desolate remnant of its glorious past.
In the eighteenth century, King Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kandy, rose in defiance against colonial oppression and launched campaigns to destroy several Dutch forts in his effort to revive the historical and cultural legacy of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. A devout Buddhist and generous patron of the faith, King Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe provided royal sponsorship for the restoration of ancient Sinhalese temples and stūpas, including the Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra, beginning around 1750. Under his enlightened reign, the light of the Dhamma once again shone upon the island. His long and prosperous rule marked a renaissance of Buddhism and the re- establishment of religious freedom throughout Sri Lanka.
In 1767, the Dutch colonial administration granted King Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe permission to draw from the royal treasury to fund the restoration of Kelaniya Temple, an undertaking supervised by the Venerable Mapitigama Buddharakkhita Thero.
Later, in 1780, the king officially entrusted the guardianship and ownership of the historic stūpa and temple lands to Venerable Buddharakkhita Thero, the presiding abbot of the Kelaniya Monastery.
During the nineteenth century, when Sri Lanka became part of the British Empire, the absence of royal patronage led once again to the decline and neglect of the Kelaniya Temple. Yet, true to the principle that “decay gives rise to renewal,” a new era of revival began in 1888, when the temple was restored and rebuilt through the benefaction of Madam Helena Wijewardana. Helena Wijewardana, born into a wealthy and noble family, was a visionary philanthropist and a pioneering figure in the movement for Sri Lanka’s national independence. The mural paintings inside the stūpa, long faded and deteriorated with time, were restored by Solius Mendis, one of the greatest artists of his era. The restoration project lasted twenty years, a testament to the dedication and devotion invested in preserving this sacred heritage.
In summary, the ancient Kelaniya Monastery was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt throughout history, first by Dravidian invasions from south India, later by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, before being rebuilt by King Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe in 1767. In the modern twentieth century, the temple underwent another major restoration between 1927 and 1946, once again under the generous patronage of Helena Wijewardana.
In 2008, Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra was officially recognized as an archaeological monument and designated as the spiritual center of the grand Duruthu Mahā Perahera festival, one of the most significant Buddhist processions in Sri Lanka. Each year, thousands of devotees and pilgrims from across the island and around the world gather at this sacred temple to witness and participate in the magnificent Duruthu Perahera, honoring the enduring legacy of the Buddha’s visit and the living spirit of Sri Lankan Buddhism.
6.1.3. Architecture of the Kelaniya Temple Complex
a. Main Shrine Hall (Image House)
The main shrine hall of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra measures
150 feet in length and 90 feet in width. It was originally constructed and offered by King Parakramabahu IX in the year 1527 as an act of royal devotion. The roof of the temple is built in the traditional Kandyan architectural style, characterized by its graceful, tiered eaves and intricately carved wooden beams, hallmarks of the Sinhalese craftsmanship of that period.
Main shrine hall of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra.
An inscription dated 1767 records that novice monk (sāmaṇera) Mapitigama undertook significant renovation works, including the addition of several Buddha images. Another stone inscription dating from 1779 also attests to subsequent restoration efforts carried out during that time.
Monks in walking meditation
at the front of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra.
b. White Hemispherical Kelaniya Stūpa
The White Stūpa of Kelaniya, shaped like a heap of rice, is ninety feet high and has a base diameter of ninety-eight feet. Around the outer walls of the stūpa are arched niches enshrining Buddha images, where devotees usually walk around to pay homage. There is an entrance leading inside the stūpa, with two lions and elephants (gajasinha) standing on both sides under a makhara arch from the Anurādhapura period.
The White Stūpa of Kelaniya
and its majestic triple-arched gateway (Torana).
Devotional niche with Buddha image on the outer wall of the stūpa.
c. Reclining Buddha Statue
The historical Kelaniya Monastery has a beautiful gilded reclining Buddha statue. The statue is six feet long, and the temple walls are decorated with murals dating from the late eighteenth to early nineteenth century.
A Sri Lankan boy respectfully joins his palms before the image of the Blessed One.
The serene and transcendent countenance of the Buddha.
The sacred feet of the Blessed One, as seen from the entrance doorway.
Murals depicting the parinibbāna (passing away) of the Buddha.
d. Murals and Frescoes
Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra is famous for its murals and frescoes dating from the seventeenth to twentieth centuries,
predominantly painted in orange-gray tones by the renowned artist Soliyas Mendis between 1927 and 1946. The pigments were extracted from natural materials such as trees, flowers, and vegetables. These works are among the most beautiful artistic creations in Ceylon, successfully depicting the sublime virtues of compassion, loving-kindness, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, as well as the inner battle of Bodhisatta Gotama in overcoming the defilements of greed, hatred, and delusion.
The paintings cover a wide range of themes, including:
• The present life and past lives (jātakas) of the Buddha, such as the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, and the parinibbāna of the Blessed One.
• The compilation of the Buddhist Tipiṭaka in Ceylon.
• Kings and queens of the Kandyan era, the last kingdom of Sri Lanka.
• The history of Buddhism and the political context of Sri Lanka between 1927–1946, such as King Devanampiyatissa offering Mahāmegha Park to Arahant Mahinda, the Buddhist councils held in Sri Lanka, an Indian monk-scholar lecturing on the Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) and its commentaries to the Sangharāja of Mahā Vihāra, Therī Sanghamittā bringing a sapling of the Bodhi tree to the island, and Prince Danta and Princess Hemamala bringing the Sacred Tooth Relic from northern India to Sri Lanka.
Murals depicting Jātaka Tales of the Buddha.
Prince Siddhartha visiting Princess Yasodharā and baby Rāhula.
Homage to the Blessed One, the teacher of gods and humans.
The story of Prince Danta and Princess Hemamala from Kalinga, ancient India, during the reign of King Keerthi Sri Meghavarna (Kithsirimevan, 301–328 CE), bringing the Sacred Tooth Relic from India to Sri Lanka.159.
The mural hall with paintings covering walls and ceiling.
- The story of Prince Danta and Princess Hemamala is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
The modern murals on the ceiling uniquely illustrate Eastern astrology, featuring the nine planets revolving around the sun along with the twelve zodiac signs. Each zodiac symbol is painted according to its position relative to the moon, portraying the ancient importance of astrology and the calculation of time and dates based on the movements of celestial bodies.
e. Ascetic Buddha Statue and Outdoor Avalokiteśvara
Statues
The statue of Bodhisatta Gotama
in ascetic practice stands six feet high.
Devotees paying homage to the statue of Bodhisatta Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin).
The Avalokiteśvara Pavilion rises to eighteen feet.
f. Temple Gate, Pond, Bodhi Tree, and Other Structures
The temple complex has two main gates and a stairway leading up to the shrine.
Artistic staircase architecture of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra.
The Bodhi tree compound.160.
- This Bodhi Tree is said to be a descendant of the sacred Bodhi tree at Anurādhapura, which originated from the original Bodhi tree in India. It was brought to Sri Lanka in the third century BCE by Bhikkhunī Saṅghamittā Theri, the daughter of Emperor Aśoka.
Leaves of the Bodhi tree beside the veranda of Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra.
A water pond before the main gate.
Steps leading to Kelaniya shrine.
A stone water container.
Stone carvings of the seven-headed nāga serpent.
Dragon-carved stairway leading to the main shrine.
6.1.4. Duruthu Perahera Festival
The Duruthu Perahera Festival, or Kelani Procession, was first established during the inauguration of the Kelaniya Temple in 1927. Since then, it has been held annually before the full moon
day of January.
The grand procession features the relics of the Buddha being paraded with hundreds of elephants, accompanied by torches, flags, dancers, drummers, and musicians in a majestic and solemn atmosphere. Especially at night, the temple glows with thousands of oil lamps and lanterns, illuminating the magnificent murals of Kelaniya in golden light. Every year, hundreds of thousands of local devotees and foreign visitors gather at Kelaniya to participate in this spectacular festival.
6.1.5. Religious, Cultural, and Educational Center
Under the leadership of Venerable Professor Kollupitiye Mahinda Sangharakkhitha Thera and the resident Sangha, the Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra organizes numerous Dhamma teaching and training programs for monks, nuns, lay devotees, and especially for students from local schools, colleges, and universities.
With its distinctive architecture, artistic murals, and a long history spanning the ancient, medieval, and modern eras, Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra has rightfully become a renowned Buddhist education and cultural center, a famous pilgrimage and spiritual tourist destination, and a living institution of learning for students of history, religion, fine arts, and architecture. Universities and colleges often organize field trips to Kelaniya for academic research and experiential learning.
6.1.6. Visitor Information for Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra
With a history spanning over twenty-six centuries, Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra is today one of the most sacred, majestic, and ancient temples in Sri Lanka and serves as an important center of Buddhism. The temple has grown into a major pilgrimage site for the Sinhalese people and visitors from around the world. Pilgrims may visit anytime during the year, though the best
period is in January to personally experience the grand Duruthu Perahera festival.
Kelaniya Temple is in Kelaniya city, on the banks of the Kelani River four miles from central Colombo and twenty-four miles from Colombo International Airport. The current presiding abbot is Venerable Professor Kollupitiye Mahinda Sangharakkhitha Thera.
There are several ways to reach Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra:
By air: Take a flight from Colombo Airport to Diyawanna Oya (fifteen minutes), then take a taxi to Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra (twelve minutes).
By taxi: A taxi ride from Colombo Airport directly to the temple takes one hour.
Devotees visiting the temple.
6.1.7. Nearby Attractions
In Kelaniya city, besides the solemn and ancient Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra, there are numerous nearby attractions for pilgrims and tourists:
• Gangaramaya Buddhist Temple, featuring distinctive
architectural style.
• Water World Lanka, a water park for recreation.
• Vihāra Mahādevi Park, which features a seated Buddha statue in meditation, surrounded by gardens, a water pond, boating, elephants, wildlife, and lush natural scenery.
Seated Buddha statue in meditation at Vihāra Mahādevi Park.
6.2. MUHUDU MAHĀ VIHĀRA
Muhudu Mahā Vihāra, also known as Magul Mahā Vihāra, is located north of Lahugala National Park, near Pottuvil Beach in the Ampara District of eastern
Sri Lanka. The temple was built over 2,000 years ago by King Kavan Tissa of Ruhuna and is therefore sometimes called Pottuvil Muhudu Mahā Vihāra.
Lahugala was part of the ancient capital of Ruhuna Ceylon.
Panoramic view of the ruins of the main shrine at Muhudu Mahā Vihāra.
6.2.1. History of Muhudu Mahā Vihāra
Muhudu Vihāra is believed to be the place where Princess Vihāra Mahādevi, daughter of King Kelani Tissa, became the queen consort of King Kavan Tissa of the Rohana Kingdom.
According to the ancient chronicle Rajavaliya, in the second century BCE, after the city of Kelaniya was submerged by the sea as a result of a natural disaster, Princess Devi, daughter of King Kelaniya, was set adrift in a golden vessel to appease the sea gods. She drifted ashore near Muhudu Mahā Vihāra in Pottuvil, where she was found and later became the chief consort of King Kavan Tissa, taking the name Vihāra Mahādevi.161.
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, 145–146.
A new stūpa has been built in modern times
to commemorate the event of Princess Vihāra Mahādevi becoming the queen of King Kavan Tissa.162.
6.2.2. Architecture of Muhudu Mahā Vihāra
Over time, due to weathering and erosion, the temple has not remained intact. Today, one can still see the square foundation of the main shrine, around twenty stone pillars, Buddha statues, two chief disciple statues, and the remains of Seema Malaka and Avasa Geya structures.163.
- L Manju, Muhudu Maha Vihara, Wikimedia Commons.
163. “Muhudu Maha Vihara,” Tripadvisor.
The Buddha statue with two chief disciples at Muhudu Mahā Vihāra.
The main shrine of Muhudu Mahā Vihāra was built on a raised platform, with stairways on three sides leading inside. At the lowest level, there are lion statues flanking the stairs and a beautifully crafted semi-circular moonstone at the base.
The semi-circular moonstone staircase leading to the main shrine.
Surrounding the ruins is a stone boundary wall decorated with rows of carved elephants interspersed with ornamental floral motifs, highlighting exquisite ancient craftsmanship.
The sturdy stone wall carved with elephant processions.
6.2.3. Visitor Information for Muhudu Mahā Vihāra
Muhudu Mahā Vihāra is located a mile from the Monaragala– Pottuvil Road, fourteen miles from Siyambalanduwa, and seven miles from the town of Pottuvil. Visitors can reach the site by taxi or bus.
The temple lies near the Lahugala National Park and Pottuvil Beach, where the breeze is cool year-round, surrounded by lush green forests and a large lotus pond near the ruins, enhancing the natural beauty and serenity of Muhudu Mahā Vihāra. This makes visiting the site both a spiritual and nature-filled experience.
6.3. ANCIENT MONASTERY COMPLEX: MEDIRIGIRIYA VATADAGEYA
The ancient Medirigiriya Vatadageya Temple, also known as the Uposathaghara (Chapter House for the recitation of the monastic code), is located in Medirigiriya District, eastern Sri Lanka, to the north of Polonnaruwa City. The temple lies at the center of the Medirigiriya complex and was built by King Kanittha Tissa
during the Anurādhapura period, more than 2,000 years ago.
Location of the Medirigiriya Vatadageya Stūpa on the map of Sri Lanka.164.
6.3.1. History of Medirigiriya Vatadageya
According to the Mahāvamsa Chronicle, King Kanittha Tissa (166–184 CE) built an uposatha hall (chapter house for monastic recitation) at this site. A person named Malayaraja offered the dome of this circular stūpa during the reign of King Aggabodhi. In the ninth century, a hospital was built here, and later the site was restored under King Vijayabahu.
- Uwe Dedering, Polonnaruwa Districts Map, Wikimedia Commons.
Author Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương visited Medirigiriya Vatadageya twice, in 2016 (first photo) and 2023 (second photo).
In the twelfth century, the monks of Medirigiriya Temple, together with several historical figures, played a crucial role in resolving a major political crisis in Sri Lanka.
King Gajabahu II and Parakramabahu were struggling for the throne. Both sides were evenly matched, and the prolonged conflict caused heavy casualties and greatly weakened the country. Out of compassion, the monks took on the role of peacemakers, analyzing right and wrong, negotiating, and
reconciling to bring the hostility to an end and establish an effective agreement between the two sides.
Venerable Siri Sumedha and the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation at the circular stūpa, Medirigiriya Vatadageya on July 12, 2023.
King Gajabāhu and the young Parākramabāhu eventually reached a peace agreement following a period of conflict. Under the terms of this settlement, Gajabāhu was permitted to continue ruling during his lifetime, while Parākramabāhu secured recognition as his successor. This agreement restored
temporary peace to the kingdom and was commemorated in a stone inscription preserved at Saṅgamuva; related traditions also associate similar records with Medirigiriya.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation at the base of the Medirigiriya Vatadageya Stūpa, July 12, 2023.
6.3.2. Architecture of the Medirigiriya Vatadageya
The stūpa, with a diameter of ninety-one feet, stands out beautifully with its finely crafted stone pillars supporting the roof. There are thirty-two pillars in the outermost circle, twenty in the middle circle, and sixteen in the innermost circle, forming three elegant concentric rings with stairways leading to the upper platform.
At the top level, four serene Buddha statues are seated facing the four cardinal directions, with entrances on all sides, allowing visitors to approach and pay homage from every direction.
The circular Medirigiriya Vatadageya structure is a remarkable example of ancient Ceylonese stone craftsmanship. Fortunately, this masterpiece remains almost perfectly preserved today, as illustrated in the accompanying photo.
6.3.3. Visitor Information for Medirigiriya Vatadageya Stūpa
From Polonnaruwa, follow the Polonnaruwa–Hingurakgoda Road to Hingurakgoda. Then continue nine miles along the Medirigiriya Road until you reach Medirigiriya. From there, travel two miles along Vatadage Road, and you will arrive at Medirigiriya Vatadageya.
Author Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương
at Medirigiriya Vatadageya Stūpa on July 12, 2023.
6.4. NALANDA GEDIGE ANCIENT TEMPLE
Nalanda Gedige is an ancient stone temple located near Matale, in ancient Ceylon. It was built between the eighth and tenth centuries in a distinctive Dravidian architectural style, representing a creative fusion of Tamil and Sinhalese cultures, established by the rulers of that era.
Nalanda Gedige in the beautiful morning sunlight.
6.4.1. The Term “Nalanda Gedige”
In Sinhalese, the term gedige derives from the Sanskrit word ghatika, meaning college or religious institution. Nalanda refers to the famous Buddhist university in north India renowned for Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna studies. Thus, sharing the same name as its Indian counterpart, Nalanda Gedige in Sri Lanka also signifies a center for Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna learning and practice. It is considered the only surviving Vajrayāna monastic center in Sri Lanka.
A grand monastery, the Nalanda Gedige Learning Center.165.
- Bernard Gagnon, Nalanda Gedige, Wikimedia Commons.
6.4.2. History of Nalanda Gedige
Vajrayāna (Tantra), along with Theravāda and Mahāyāna, is one of the three major branches of Buddhism. Tantra seems to have reached Sri Lanka soon after its emergence in India around the seventh century.
The earliest evidence of Vajrayāna presence on the island is found in the records of the Indian master Vajirabodhi, who introduced Tantric Buddhism to China. Before passing away in 733 CE, Vajirabodhi instructed his Sri Lankan disciple Amoghavajira to return to Sri Lanka and collect Tantric texts to bring back to China. This indicates that Tantric Buddhism was already active and flourishing in ancient Ceylon.
The archaeological site of the Nalanda Gedige Monastic Learning Center.
Nalanda Gedige is a masterpiece of ancient art—a historical, archaeological, and architectural landmark, richly adorned with detailed and refined carvings. As a result, it continues to attract pilgrims, students, and researchers who come to admire and study its unique heritage.
6.4.3. Visitor Information for Nalanda Gedige
Nalanda Gedige is located along the main highway from Kandy
to the north, twelve miles from Matale. A clearly marked signpost on the road indicates the turn leading to this ancient monastic center.
6.5. TEMPLE OF THE SACRED TOOTH RELIC (SRI DALADA MALIGAWA)
Kandy is a large misty highland city in Central Sri Lanka, surrounded by mountains, tea plantations, and lush tropical forests, much like Đà Lạt in Vietnam. At the heart of the city lies Kandy Lake (also called Bogambara Lake), whose tranquil blue waters create a peaceful setting for visitors to stroll and meditate while enjoying the cool breeze drifting across the lake.
Location of Kandy.
Kandy is world-renowned for its sacred Buddhist sites, especially the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic, located within the royal palace complex of the former Kingdom of Kandy. The temple houses the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha, considered the national treasure of Buddhist Sri Lanka, and was designated a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site in 1988.
This is one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Sri Lanka—no visit to the island is complete without visiting Kandy. Thousands of local and international devotees come to venerate the relic daily, especially during July and August, when the grand and solemn Kandy Esālā Perahera Festival, the annual procession of the Sacred Tooth Relic, is held.
View of the sacred Sri Dalada Maligawa Temple, Kandy.166.
This sacred Buddhist site, also known as Senkadagalapura, was the final capital of the Sinhalese kings, who preserved and strengthened Sinhala Buddhist culture for more than 2,500 years, until the British occupation of Sri Lanka in 1815.
6.5.1. Princess Hemamali Bringing the Sacred Tooth Relic to Ceylon
It was Arahant Khema who secretly took the left canine tooth of the Buddha from the funeral pyre and offered it to King Brahmadatte. From that point, the Sacred Tooth Relic became a royal possession, enshrined in Dantapuri (modern Orissa).
According to the Dāṭhāvaṃsa (Chronicle of the Tooth Relic):
After the Buddha’s parinibbāna and cremation, relics including his skull bone, two collarbones, and four teeth
remained. Among them, the venerable sage Khema took
166. A. Savin, Sacred Tooth Temple, Wikimedia Commons.
the left tooth relic from the funeral pyre. Later, the sage Khema presented this Tooth Relic to King Brahmadatta of the Kalinga kingdom, who enshrined it in Dantapura. Centuries later, when a neighboring king threatened war to seize the sacred relic, King Guhasiva of Kalinga, fearing it would fall into enemy hands, entrusted it to his daughter, Princess Hemamāli, and instructed her to smuggle the Tooth Relic to Sri Lanka for safekeeping.167.
The “Sutra on the Merit of Bathing the Buddha” (Kinh Công Đức Tắm Phật) describes two types of Buddha relics (śarīras):
• Relics of the physical body: these are the remains of the Buddha and arahants, including full-body relics and fragmented relics.
• Relics of the Dhamma, also called textual or teaching relics, these consist of the Dhamma and Vinaya taught by the Buddha, which remain in the world forever.
After the Buddha entered parinibbāna, his physical body was cremated at Kushināgar, Uttar Pradesh, India. The bodily relics were divided into eight portions for enshrinement in eight locations: Vaishali, Rajagaha, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagama, Vethadipa, Pava, and Kushi Nāgar. One brahmin, Dona, arrived late and collected ashes mixed with embers in a vessel to enshrine in a stūpa.
From that time onward, it was widely believed that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic held legitimate authority to rule the land, a belief that gave rise to numerous conflicts over its possession. Approximately 800 years after the Buddha’s passing, in the fourth century CE, the Tooth Relic came into the
167. Mutu Coomaraswamy, trans., The Dathávansa, or The History of the Tooth- Relic of Gotama Buddha, English translation of the Dāṭhāvaṃsa (London: Trübner & Co., 1874), summary of vv. 52–57, https://dn790007.ca.archive. org/0/items/cu31924023188331/cu31924023188331.pdf
.
custody of King Guhasīva of Kaliṅga.
View of the serene Temple of the Tooth by the Kandy River.168.
King Guhaseeva became a devoted Buddhist and venerated the tooth, which displeased some non-Buddhists in his kingdom. They approached King Pandu claiming that Guhaseeva had abandoned the old gods by converting to Buddhism. King Pandu decided to destroy the relic and ordered it to be brought to his city. Legend says that upon the tooth’s arrival, a miracle occurred: King Pandu was spiritually moved and converted to Buddhism.
When King Ksheeradara heard of this, he led an army to attack Pandu at Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died. A prince in Udeni became a Buddhist and paid homage to the Sacred Tooth. King Guhaseeva, pleased, married his daughter, Princess Hemamali, to the prince, who became known as Prince Dantha.
When news of King Ksheeradara’s death in battle reached them, his sons raised an army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. The attackers entered the city, but Princess Hemamali secretly hid the Tooth Relic in her hair bun, and she and Prince Dantha disguised themselves as commoners, fleeing India for the island of Ceylon. They departed from Tamralipti, a port at the Ganges River, and arrived in Ceylon at Lankapattana Port
168. Savin, photographer. Sacred Tooth Temple, Kandy. Wikimedia Commons.
(modern Ilankeiturei) during the reign of King Keerthi Sri Meghavarna (Kithsirimevan 301–328 CE).169.
Orissa and Ceylon historically shared close political and cultural ties. Members of the Orissan royal family were sometimes invited to become kings of Ceylon when a monarch passed away without a successor. Therefore, during times of turmoil, King Guhaseeva of India considered donating the Sacred Tooth Relic to the peaceful kingdom of Ceylon.
Upon receiving the Sacred Tooth Relic, King Kirti Sri Megavanna and the people of Ceylon celebrated with great joy, conducting an elaborate ceremony to honor the relic. They expressed deep gratitude to King Guhaseeva (Odisha),170. Princess Hemamali, and Prince Dantha for offering this sacred treasure of the Buddha. The king built a stupa for the relic and established annual ceremonies to venerate it, attended by thousands of devotees.
Over time, for administrative convenience and protection from foreign invasions, the capital of Ceylon moved from Anurādhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other locations. Each time the capital moved, the relic stūpa was also relocated and reconstructed. Today, the Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy enshrines the Sacred Tooth Relic under the care of the Mahānayake Theros (Malwatte and Asgiriya Chapters) and the Diyawadana Nilame (Maligawa), among others.
6.5.2. Architecture of Sri Dalada Maligawa (Royal Palace of Kandy)
According to the Mahāvamsa and Culavamsa chronicles, in ancient times the Buddha’s Tooth Relic was entrusted to the Ceylonese monarchy and became a closely guarded royal possession. Over the centuries, the relic was hidden, moved,
169. Dhammika, Sacred Island, 154–155.
170. Odisha refers to the modern/historical name for the region where King Guhaseeva ruled, in eastern India.
and relocated multiple times. By 1545, the Sacred Tooth Relic was brought to Kandy, where it has been enshrined in the Sri Dalada Maligawa ever since.
The current temple was rebuilt by King Rajasinghe II in the seventeenth century on the site of the previous temple, which had been destroyed by the Portuguese. In the eighteenth century, King Narendrasinha expanded and repainted the temple, creating a larger and more elaborate structure.171.
The Buddha’s Tooth Relic.
The Buddha statue at the temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic.
- Sri Dalada Maligawa (Royal Palace of Kandy),” OttsWorld, http://www. ottsworld.com/blogs/kandy-and-a-sweet-tooth/
In Sinhalese, the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic is called Sri Dalada Maligawa. It is one of the most sacred Buddhist sites in the world, as it houses the left canine tooth of the Blessed One, Gautama Buddha, the final enshrinement of the Sacred Tooth Relic.
The temple features unique Kandyan-style architecture of eastern Sri Lanka. Out of reverence for the relic, the temple is adorned with gold, silver, copper, and rare ivory offerings. It is located in the city of Kandy with Bogambara Lake (Kiri Muhuda) to the south, the ancient Royal Palace to the north, Udawattakele Forest to the east, and the Natha and Paththini Devala to the west.
The complex consists of a two-story rectangular stone building and an octagonal ivory-white stūpa with a red roof. The temple has three entrances: the main entrance facing the hall and two side entrances to the north and south. The moon-shaped steps and stair balustrades carved with elephants lead to the veranda at the main entrance. Beyond the veranda lies the sanctum housing the Sacred Tooth Relic.
On either side of the steps are two large stone lions, donated by Chinese pilgrims in the late nineteenth century. Several large ivory tusks adorn the sides of the main hall.
Pilgrims usually walk silently in meditation with hands clasped, moving clockwise around the temple. The ground floor features twenty-six painted pillars decorated with vivid images of lions, birds, animals, and floral motifs. Every evening at 5 p.m., a flower and water offering ceremony is performed for the Tooth Relic, accompanied by traditional Sri Lankan drumming, music, and dance.At the rear of the temple, a stairway leads to the Sri Dalada Museum on the upper floor, displaying Buddha statues, ritual objects, documents, and historical materials related to the Sacred Tooth Relic.
The beautiful Sri Dalada Maligawa.
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương and the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation visiting Sri Dalada Maligawa, Kandy, on August 21, 2016.
To view the tooth, pilgrims are advised to arrive around 5 p.m. and queue. When the doors open, visitors pass through two small rooms to reach the third room, where the relic is enshrined in a large golden stūpa. Upon leaving the sanctum, visitors turn right and descend the staircase to the ground floor, exiting through a door at the bottom. At night, golden lights illuminate the stūpa,
allowing devotees to admire it from a distance.
Sri Dalada Maligawa glowing at night.
The Kandy Sālā Perahera is an annual Tooth Relic festival held in July and August. On this occasion, the Sacred Tooth Relic is taken out of the stūpa and paraded in a grand procession of hundreds of elephants, dancers, drummers, and devotees around the city, with thousands of pilgrims from Sri Lanka and abroad attending.
Sri Lanka Kandy Sala Perahera.172.
- Danuja Jayasuriya, Esala Perahera, Kandy, Wikimedia Commons.
Annual Kandy Sālā Perahera.173.
It is traditionally said that the Buddha left four Sacred Teeth in the world:174.
• One tooth enshrined in the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings
• One tooth at the Dragon Palace (Long Cung)
• One tooth in China
• One tooth in Kandy, Sri Lanka
The relic in Kandy is displayed only once a year during the grand procession, accompanied by a ceremonial parade of elephants, musicians, flutes, drums, cymbals, and other instruments, creating a solemn and majestic cultural spectacle, an iconic symbol of Sri Lankan heritage.
The stūpa can only be opened when four keyholders unlock it
- Daniel Liabeuf, Kandy Esala Perahera Elephants, Wikimedia Commons.
174. Dhammika, Sacred Island ,178.
simultaneously. These four keyholders are:
1. The President
2. The Prime Minister
3. The Chief Sangha Representative (head of the clergy)
4. The Chief Custodian of the Temple of the Sacred Tooth.
6.5.3. Visitor Information for the Sacred Tooth Relic Temple
The Sri Dalada Maligawa is located in the heart of Kandy city. Kandy, a highland city, is seventy-one miles from the ancient capital Anurādhapura and seventy-three miles from Colombo, the modern capital. It is the second-largest city in Sri Lanka and is easily accessible by bus, taxi, car, and frequent trains. By car from Colombo, it takes three to four hours to reach Kandy.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation visiting the home of Venerable K. Siri Sumedha Thero in Gampola Village, Kandy, on August 22, 2016.
***
Chapter 7
Buddhist Cave Temples Of Sri Lanka
eylon, now known as Sri Lanka, is a beautiful island richly endowed by nature with sandy beaches, rolling hills, and luxuriant tropical forests. Amidst its verdant
wilderness lie numerous natural rock formations, within which many monasteries, stūpas, and Buddha statues have been carved into the living rock. These sacred monuments depicting the Buddha in meditation or in the serene posture of parinibbāna are fashioned from naturally colored stone, creating an atmosphere of both majesty and tranquility.
This chapter introduces several of Sri Lanka’s most renowned Buddhist cave shrines, including the Aluvihāra Rock Temple, Arankale Cave Monastery, Dimbulagala Rock Mountain, Hatthikucchi Caves, Rājagala Cave, Ritigala Cave, Situlpahuwa Cave, and the Dambulla Royal Rock (Golden Temple).
7.1. ALUVIHĀRA ROCK TEMPLE
The Aluvihāra Rock Temple, also known as Aloka Vihāra or
Alulena, is a sacred Buddhist monastery located in the village
of Aluvihāra, in the Matale District of Central Sri Lanka.
Surrounded by hills and lush green vegetation, the temple lies nineteen miles north of Kandy, along the main Matale–Dambulla highway.
The main entrance to the historic Aluvihāra Rock Temple site.
Pilgrimage Delegation from Hương Sen Temple isiting Aluvihāra Rock Temple on July 13, 2023.
Although modest in size, Aluvihāra Rock Temple holds profound significance in the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and the world. It was here, for the first time in human history, that the Tipiṭaka, the threefold collection of Vinaya (Discipline), Suttas (Discourses), and Abhidhamma (Philosophical Treatises) were committed to writing in the Pāli language on ola (palm) leaves. This monumental task, undertaken by the venerable elders, ensured the preservation of the Buddha’s teachings for future generations.
The sacred manuscripts of the Pāli Tipiṭaka, inscribed on ola leaves over two millennia ago, are still reverently preserved and exhibited within the precincts of the Aluvihāra Rock Temple today.
The Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) inscribed on Ola leaves, the priceless Dhamma treasure of Theravāda Buddhism.
7.1.1. Definition and Etymology of the Term “Aluvihāre”
There exist numerous folk traditions and religious beliefs concerning the origin of the term Aluvihāre. In its earliest usage, the cave temple was known as “Alu Lena” or “Aloka Lena”, meaning “the Cave of Light.” Over time, the name evolved into Aluvihāre.
This transformation occurred because the Pāli term “aloka,” meaning “light or illumination,” is synonymous with the Sinhala word “alu.” Since the place also served as a hermitage for Buddhist monks, it was naturally designated as a “vihāra,” a monastery or temple. Thus, the compound term “alu + vihāra” came to signify the “Monastery of Light.”
Another interpretation holds that although the temple lies within a rocky mountain, its eastern side shielded by a massive boulder, sunlight still reaches the interior, illuminating the cave without obstruction. For this reason, it was venerated as the “Aloka Lena, the “Cave of Radiant Light.”
In summary, the name Aluvihāre is intimately associated with light, both literal and symbolic, reflecting the spiritual illumination that this sacred site has long represented in the Buddhist tradition.
Hương Sen Buddhist disciples prostrating before the exquisitely carved Buddha statues within the sacred rock cave, July 13, 2023.
7.1.2. History of Aluvihāre: Tipiṭaka Preserved for Two
Millennia
The history of the Aluvihāre Rock Temple dates back to the third
century BCE, during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa.175. It is believed that the king constructed a Buddha shrine (dagoba), planted a Bodhi tree, and established the Aluvihāre Cave Temple soon after the introduction of Buddhism to Ceylon from India during his reign.
The rock cliff of the Aluvihāre Rock Temple, July 13, 2023.
During the reign of King Walagamba in the first century BCE, the island suffered a devastating famine that lasted nearly twelve years, accompanied by repeated invasions from south India.
At that time, the Buddhist monks foresaw that such calamities and invasions might threaten the very survival of the Buddha’s dispensation (sāsana). Preserving the sacred Dhamma treasure under such unstable conditions was a great challenge. Therefore, the Sangha of Ceylon concluded that it was necessary to record the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) in written form, ensuring the continuity and permanence of the Dhamma in the world.
- Aluvihare Rock Temple,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Aluvihare_Rock_Temple (accessed April 1, 2026).
The resonant sound of the Aluvihāre Temple bell, July 13, 2023.
Natural disasters and famine made it exceedingly difficult for the monks to receive alms offerings from the lay devotees. Consequently, the monks were forced to leave the Malaya Rata hill region and dwell near the banks of the Mahāweli River, enduring severe hardship and subsisting on whatever could be gathered from the land until the famine came to an end. Meanwhile, King Walagamba, who had been dethroned during the south Indian invasion, succeeded in defeating the invaders and regaining his sovereignty over Ceylon.
When peace was restored, around 80 BCE, concern arose that the Pāli Canon might be lost amidst the political turmoil and foreign invasions. This situation inspired King Vattagamani Abhaya (another name for King Walagamba) to undertake several great religious constructions, including the Dambulla Cave Monastery, the establishment of the great Abhayagiri Monastery in the ancient capital Anurādhapura, and the Aluvihāre Rock Temple.
It was particularly at the Aluvihāre Rock Temple that the elder monks of Ceylon, foreseeing the danger of the Dhamma’s decline, resolved to commit the entire Pāli Tipiṭaka, the Buddha’s teachings in the Suttas, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma, to writing.
This historic endeavor was carried out within the tranquil precincts of Aluvihāra Village, Matale District in Central Sri Lanka, as it was considered the safest and most suitable location at that time.
Around 500 learned monks well-versed in the Dhamma were invited to Aluvihāre to undertake this monumental task. Over a span of three consecutive years, the venerable monks inscribed the Buddhist scriptures in the Pāli language on palm- leaf manuscripts known as ola, palmyra, or talipot leaves using metal styluses to etch the sacred characters onto the surface of the leaves.176.
More than two thousand years ago, before the invention of printing, paper, or ink, the propagation of the Dhamma relied primarily on oral transmission, the memorization and recitation of the teachings from generation to generation. Hence, the act of inscribing the Canon on palm leaves represented a revolutionary advancement in the history of Buddhism and of human civilization.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương visiting the Pāli Tipiṭaka inscribed on ola leaves at Aluvihāre Temple, August 2016.
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, 168–169.
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương’s second visit to the palm-leaf Pāli Canon manuscripts at the Aluvihāre Rock Temple, Matale, July 13, 2023.
The history of Ceylon has undergone many vicissitudes and transformations, in accordance with the universal law of impermanence (anicca). During the turbulent times, numerous Buddhist manuscripts preserved at the Aluvihāre Rock Temple were destroyed by foreign invaders, including the Dutch. When the British army occupied the region in 1848, this ancient monastic library was largely destroyed as British troops attacked the temple in an effort to suppress local uprisings. Nevertheless, during the subsequent colonial period, the British administration undertook the restoration of the temple.
At present, the Pāli Tipiṭaka manuscripts and several archaeological relics unearthed at the site are displayed to the left of the main Tipiṭaka collection, serving as living testimony to the enduring heritage of Theravāda Buddhism.
Venerable Siri Sumedha Thero and the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation in front of the Pāli Tipiṭaka inscribed on ola leaves at Aluvihāre Rock Temple, Matale, Central Sri Lanka, July 13, 2023.
It is said that Kings Nissanka Malla and Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe gave highest priority to the preservation and renovation of this sacred cave temple. King Walagamba himself is recorded to have ordered all monasteries (vihāras) throughout the island to hold a Pahan Pūjā (lamp-offering ceremony) to commemorate the completion of the writing of the Tipiṭaka, a task which took over three years to accomplish.
In modern times, President Maithripala Sirisena of Sri Lanka officially declared the ola-leaf Pāli Tipiṭaka preserved at Aluvihāre Rock Temple to be a National Heritage Treasure. Since 1973, an annual grand procession has been held at Aluvihāra every June Full Moon (Poson Poya), during which the Pāli Tipiṭaka manuscripts are ceremoniously paraded in the presence of thousands of devout Buddhists from both Sri Lanka and abroad.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation offering books to the resident monks of Aluvihāre Rock Temple, July 13, 2023.
The Indian Venerable Ācariya Buddhaghosa, the renowned author of the Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), a monumental treatise composed in three volumes around the fifth century CE, is traditionally believed to have visited and resided at Aluvihāre Rock Temple during that period.
It is also said that he composed commentaries on parts of the Pāli Canon while dwelling in this sacred monastery. Although these ancient records have not survived, a cave within the temple compound is still named the “Buddhaghosa Cave” in reverent memory of this momentous event in Buddhist history.
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương together with Sri Lankan devotees offering flowers to the Buddha
within the temple precincts.
7.1.3. Architecture of Aluvihāre Rock Temple
At present, several modern architectural structures have been added to enhance the aesthetic appeal of this ancient heritage site. At the entrance stand statues of the guardian deities Makara Thorana (Doratupala), lions, the national flag, symbols of the sun and moon, and the elephant wall (athpawura), among other decorative features.
The Aluvihāre Rock Temple is a complex of caves nestled among rocky outcrops and lush greenery. Inside the caves are numerous gilded stone Buddha statues, along with magnificent murals adorning the walls and ceilings, inscribed with ancient scripts and mysterious characters. Although the caves are small and the stairways narrow, the entire temple complex emanates an aura of sacred antiquity, drawing visitors and pilgrims from all directions.
Ascending path to the Aluvihāre Rock Temple, viewed from above, July 13, 2023.
The main cave, situated to the left at the base of the stairway, houses a thirty-two-foot long reclining Buddha statue depicting the parinibbāna, a seated Buddha image in serene meditation, a standing Buddha statue with a gentle expression, and an image of a blue-hued Vajrapāṇi guardian deity. The unique cave architecture, together with the historic Tipiṭaka manuscripts, makes Aluvihāre one of the most significant and revered Buddhist heritage sites in Sri Lanka, frequently visited by devout Buddhists, students, and researchers from both home and abroad.
Intricately carved Buddha statues and vividly colored murals inside Aluvihāre Rock Temple, July 13, 2023.
One of the caves contains depictions of the hell realms, illustrating the suffering of evil-doers, serving as a moral admonition to encourage devotees towards virtue and the renunciation of wrongdoing. Another cave is dedicated to the Indian Venerable Ācariya Buddhaghosa, the most illustrious Buddhist commentator of ancient times, who resided in Anurādhapura during the fourth-fifth centuries CE and is believed to have spent several years at Aluvihāre Rock Temple, engaged in composing commentaries on the Pāli Canon.
Inside this cave stands a statue of King Vattagamani Abhaya, reverently offering the ola-leaf manuscripts of the Pāli Canon to Venerable Buddhaghosa, whose radiant golden statue (a gift from Thailand) occupies the central shrine. From this sacred cave, a stone stairway ascends past a sacred Bodhi tree, its luxuriant branches seemingly sprouting from the solid rock. At the foot of the Bodhi tree are small stūpas enshrining relics of past Buddhas, beneath which are engraved verses of the Buddha’s teachings.
The sacred Bodhi tree, stūpas, and caves of Aluvihāre, Matale, July 13, 2023.
At the summit of the temple complex, there is an open terrace corridor extending outward, offering a panoramic view of the undulating hills surrounding Matale. From this vantage point, one can behold a majestic golden Buddha statue (also donated by Thailand) seated on a distant hillside, radiating serenity and inspiring deep devotion among pilgrims and visitors alike.
The Buddha seated serenely amidst the tropical forest behind the Aluvihāre Rock Temple, Matale, July 13, 2023.
7.1.4. Visitor Information for Aluvihāre Rock Temple
As the Aluvihāre Rock Temple is a historical Buddhist heritage site renowned for the inscription of the Pāli Tipiṭaka, its ancient cave architecture, and its unique Buddha statues and murals, it welcomes pilgrims and visitors from Sri Lanka and around the world throughout the year.
At the visitor reception area, there is usually a temple attendant who demonstrates the traditional art of writing ancient characters on ola leaves. Visitors may also experience this sacred practice firsthand and may obtain a wooden replica of the Tipiṭaka, priced at $22.
The temple is located two miles from Matale town, eighteen miles north of Kandy, and ninety-three miles northeast of Colombo, the capital city.
Situated conveniently along the Matale–Dambulla highway, the site is easily accessible by bus, taxi, or private vehicle.
Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương with palms joined in reverence before the historical monument stone
of Aluvihāre Rock Temple, Matale, July 13, 2023.
7.2. ARANKALE CAVES
Arankale is a cluster of ancient rock caves associated with the Pansakulika sect of Buddhism. The name Arankale is believed to have originated from Arahant Māliadeva, a revered saint who attained liberation from the cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra).
7.2.1. Historical References to the Arankale Caves
The Mahāvaṃsa chronicle mentions Arankale as the stronghold of Sīlameghavanna, who was defeated by King Moggallāna III. Historical records also note that King Kirti Sri Rajasingha once attended a temple ceremony near Dolukanda, possibly referring to Arankale. However, by that time, the Arankale caves had already been completely overgrown by forest.
Arankale Pathway.177.
7.2.2. Cave of the Arahant Māliadeva
To reach the Arankale Cave Monastery complex, pilgrims first pass through a modern monastery built in later years. Upon asking the locals for the Cave of the Arahant Maliadeva, they will readily point the way, showing how deeply this sacred site
177. Isuru Piuminda, Arankale Pathways, Wikimedia Commons.
is remembered in local tradition.
Upon arrival, visitors encounter a massive boulder under which lies a small, serene rock temple, shaded by a few tall, graceful trees that enhance the meditative atmosphere.
The tranquil and rustic cave of the Arahant Māliadeva.
According to local legend, this was the hermitage of the Arahant Māliadeva, an enlightened disciple of the Buddha.
To the left of the cave, there is a rough forest path 800 feet long, elevated nearly five feet above ground, leading to the main temple road. This quiet forest trail is ideal for walking meditation (cankama) among the trees. Roughly one-third of the path runs along a small roundabout, beyond which lies a
stairway connecting to several stone platforms.
In total, Arankale comprises twenty caves, all located on the hillside to the left of the main pathway.
The ruins of Arankale Monastery.
On the right side of the main path, visitors can see the remains of an ancient monastery foundation. In front of it lies a rectangular reservoir with stone steps descending on all four sides, leading down to the water’s edge. Even today, local villagers come here to bathe and cool off during the heat of the day. Directly at the end of the pathway stands the Dhamma hall, connected by a covered meditative walkway leading towards it. Nearby are the remains of a kitchen, paved with bricks and polished stones, which was once used as a monastic refectory for communal meals.
No formal historical records have yet been found concerning these particular ruins, but their layout suggests the organized structure of an ancient forest monastery.
7.2.3. Visitor Information for Arankale Cave Monastery
Arankale is located sixteen miles from Kurunegala, accessible via the village of Ibbagamuva. Travelers can reach it by taxi or local bus, and then proceed on foot through the forest trail, following the meditation path that leads directly to the cave monastery.
7.3. DIMBULAGALA ROCK MOUNTAIN
Dimbulagala is a vast isolated rock formation rising to 1,700 feet, located nine miles southeast of Polonnaruwa. It stands prominently amidst the lowland plains of the Mahāweli Ganga, the longest river in Sri Lanka.
The Dimbulagala caves as seen from the foot of the mountain.
7.3.1. Definition of “Dimbulagala”
Historically, Dimbulagala was known as Udumbaragiri or Dola Pabbatha. In Pāli, “udumbara” refers to the wood apple forest, and “giri” denotes a mountain or hill. Therefore, “Dimbulagala” literally means “the rock caves of the wood apple forest.”178. At one point, the British referred to the site as the “Quoin of the Marksmen.”179.
- Dimbulagala Stūpa, Lakpura.
179. The Quoin of the Marksmen, Dimbulagala webpage, Angelfire.
Dimbulagala Temple.180.
7.3.2. History of the Dimbulagala Caves
In ancient times, the Dimbulagala caves were known as the realm of sacred vākṣas deities. Owing to the spiritual aura of the surrounding mountains and river, from the period of Polonnaruwa and particularly during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Dimbulagala became an important center for Buddhist spiritual practice, attracting attention both within Sri Lanka and abroad, especially from southeast Asian countries.
Historically, it is recounted that Prince Pandukabhaya, the son of King Unmadachitra and Queen Deegāgamini, resided in these caves along with Princess Swarna Pāli.181. During this time, two protective spirits, Senadhipathies Chitra Raja and Kala Vela, who took human forms, are said to have assisted the royal couple. Later, within the same caves, Princess Swarna Pāli gave birth to a son, named Mutasiva, in honor of her father. Historical records also mention the birth of another prince, Ganatissa, at Dimbulagala.
Prince Pandukabhaya ascended the throne, establishing the
180. Astronomyinertia, Dimbulagala Temple, Wikimedia Commons.
181. “King Pandukabhaya,” Dimbulagala Raja Maha Vihara, Wikipedia.
capital at Anurādhapura, where he ruled for many years. Upon his death, Prince Mutasiva succeeded him. The Chronicles of Ceylon record that Arahant Mahinda arrived on the island during the reign of King Mutasiva in 247 BCE. The throne subsequently passed to King Devanampiyatissa, son of Mutasiva, demonstrating the central role of Dimbulagala caves in tracing the lives and succession of early kings, particularly in times of political turmoil.182.
Devanampiyatissa is recognized as the first revered monarch of Anurādhapura, establishing the kingdom’s contributions to the construction of Buddhist monasteries and stūpas, among which Dimbulagala caves stand as one of the earliest Buddhist sites.
Historically, from the period of Arahant Mahinda to the era of the last arahant, Maliyadeva, many eminent arahants are recorded to have practiced meditation at Dimbulagala. The literary work, Sad Dhammalankaraya, notes that during the reign of King Vijayabahu I, several monasteries and stūpas were renovated, marking a revival and flourishing of Buddhism in Ceylon. On his coronation day, the king vowed in the presence of the Sangha to protect and promote the Dhamma, including restoring the Dimbulagala Vihāra, which had suffered destruction at the hands of invaders.183.
The Dimbulagala caves are further revered in the Buddhist tradition as a place where Arahant Kunthagattha Tissa temporarily resided, participating in the committing to writing the Pāli Tipiṭaka at Aluvihāra, Matale, together with five hundred monks. Upon learning of this, King Valagamba supported the project by restoring the Dimbulagala caves, excavating lotus ponds, planting fruit gardens, constructing dwellings for the monks, and donating lands, fields, and villages to sustain the monastic community.
- Ratnapala, “Dimbulagala Rajamaha Viharaya,” AmazingLanka.
183. Ibid.
Queen Sundarādevī, consort of King Vijayabahu I, though of Indian origin, contributed significantly by spearheading the royal patronage of Buddhism at Dimbulagala. An inscription at the ancient city of Polonnaruwa praises the queen’s meritorious support. She also commissioned and restored numerous meditation caves (kutis) around the Oushada Pokuna pond, and rebuilt the connecting pathways between the Great Moon and Great Sun cave complexes, which together housed 500 hermitages for Ceylonese monks.
Additionally, she donated resources to construct stūpas enshrining the Buddha’s relics and planted a Bodhi tree at the Kalinga cave. In the twenty-seventh year of Poson, during the reign of King Jayabahu, the queen undertook the excavation of water reservoirs. Today, only faint foundations remain.
Upon the conclusion of King Vijayabahu I’s reign in 1153, succession disputes led to a decline in royal patronage, resulting in the weakening of Buddhism. Monastic discipline deteriorated, temples fell into disrepair, and the Sangha became divided. Nevertheless, at Dimbulagala caves, the monks of Ceylon continued diligent practice, maintaining the precepts, concentration, and wisdom.
During this period of political instability, Prince Parakramabahu rode to Polonnaruwa to claim the throne. Under his capable and assertiverule,muchofCeylonwasreunified.Thekingimmediately initiated projects to restore political stability, consolidate the economy, and strengthen national unity. Recognizing the importance of religious guidance, Parakramabahu consulted the chief monk at Dimbulagala, Venerable Mahā Kassapa, known for his ascetic discipline and gentle character, who was highly revered throughout the kingdom.
Venerable Mahā Kassapa and his disciples welcomed the king’s proposal to purify the Sangha, hoping to revive moral conduct and monastic discipline. Following his counsel, a large assembly
of monks was convened; thorough inspections resulted in thousands of impostor monks being defrocked, while genuine practitioners were encouraged to amend their conduct, and truly dedicated ascetics received higher ordination (upasampadā).
Subsequently, Mahā Kassapa composed a Monastic Code (Kathikāvata) as a supplement to the traditional Vinaya, which was later inscribed on stone at Gal Vihāra in Polonnaruwa for public reading. This code established exemplary standards of monastic conduct, emphasizing solitude, simplicity, and asceticism as ideals of practice.
A regulatory council was established to oversee discipline, decorum, and monastic rules. Under this guidance, the Dimbulagala Monastery became a rigorous center of Buddhist study and practice, led by Venerable Mahā Kassapa, renowned for his expertise in Vinaya. Its reputation spread far and wide, attracting monks from Burma, India, Thailand, and beyond, with the Dhamma taught in multiple languages.
Great rulers such as King Vijayabahu I and King Parakramabahu I, as well as eminent scholars like Gurulugomi and Vidyācakravarthi, sought spiritual counsel from the monks of Dimbulagala. The moral and intellectual authority of Dimbulagala monks even influenced the resolution of a conflict in Thailand, as recorded by a Thai prince in a gilded manuscript preserved in Thailand. This demonstrates that Dimbulagala served as a spiritual advisory center for both domestic and foreign rulers of the time.
Monastic discipline and Vinaya observance at Dimbulagala were strictly maintained under the protection of Venerable Mahā Kassapa and King Parakramabahu I. For these meritorious deeds, the king became known as Parakramabahu the Great, and Mahā Kassapa was recognized as the Supreme National Preceptor of Ceylon.
7.3.3. Cave Architecture
Situated opposite the Mahāweli Ganga, the longest river in Ceylon, the Dimbulagala cave complex, set amidst a serene natural landscape, has become an
ideal site for Buddhist practice and meditation. The caves are constructed in the Pabbata Vihāra architectural style, hewn directly into the rock during the late Anurādhapura period, and historically served as hermitages for 500 ascetic monks.
Dimbulagala cave complex.
Dimbulagala cave complex: This meditation cave complex dates back to the medieval period. It was abandoned following the decline of the Polonnaruwa Kingdom, and is currently undergoing gradual restoration and conservation.
7.3.4. Visitor Information for Dimbulagala Caves
Dimbulagala is a large rock mountain in Central Sri Lanka,
near the ancient city of Polonnaruwa, eighty-one miles east of Colombo, ten miles south of Kandy, and twenty-two miles west of Nuwara Eliya.
These caves are among the earliest Buddhist sites, dating from the first centuries of Buddhism, located roughly twelve miles east of the ancient Polonnaruwa Kingdom, on a scenic hill range along the eastern bank of the Mahāweli River, the longest river in Sri Lanka.
Travel distances and routes:
• From Colombo to Polonnaruwa: 143 miles, 5 hours by car via Central Highway–Kurunegala–Dambulla
• From Kandy to Polonnaruwa: 87 miles, 4 hours by car via Matale–Dambulla–Habaran
• From Anurādhapura to Polonnaruwa: 64 miles, 2 hours by car via Maradankadawala–Habarana
• From Batticaloa to Polonnaruwa: 60 miles, 2 hours by car via Chenkaladi–Valachchena.
• From Polonnaruwa to Dimbulagala: 16 miles, 40 minutes by car via Manampitiya
• From Kandy to Dimbulagala: 93 miles, 4 hours by car via Mahiyanganaya
7.4. HATTHIKUCCHI CAVES
Hatthikucchi is so named due to its distinctive shape. Venerable Buddhaghosa visited this cave and noted that Hatthikucchi was among the most renowned monastic centers in Sri Lanka, alongside Mihintale, Situlpava, and Dakkhinagiri. However, in reality, it is rarely mentioned in the Ceylonese chronicles.
7.4.1. Architecture of Hatthikucchi
Although much of the structure has collapsed, the remaining foundations reveal that the architecture of Hatthikucchi was once exceptionally elegant, almost pictorial in appearance, situated amidst numerous uniquely shaped rocks, surrounded by dense forest and hills behind the cave. For this reason, Venerable Buddhaghosa described it as one of the finest meditation caves in Sri Lanka.
Top of the Hatthikucchi Kingdom.184.
A small museum near the entrance displays artifacts and ritual objects recovered by archaeologists from the site. During the summer, wild elephants are known to take shelter in the cave to avoid the heat.
Intricate stone carvings on the walls testify to the skill and artistry of the ancient monks who resided there.
- Udesh Wijeraja, Haththikucchi Kingdom, Wikimedia Commons.
The Hatthikucchi foundation.
7.4.2. Visitor Information for Hatthikucchi
Hatthikucchi is located near the main Kurunegala–Anurādhapura Road, sixteen miles north of Galgamuva.
7.5. RĀJAGALA ROCK MONASTERY
7.5.1. History of Rājagala Rock
Rājagala is a rugged rocky mountain situated amid dense and secluded forests, in a sparsely populated region that rarely receives visitors. The early history of this site remains uncertain, yet monastic communities are believed to have lived here prior to the first century BCE. Across the northern summit lie extensive ruins, still awaiting excavation, restoration, and scholarly exploration.
Rājagala Rock archaeological site.
Several artistic and culturally significant remains may still be found at the site, such as the following:
A large stone bowl used for offering fruits to the Buddha.
A massive rock slab sixteen feet in length into which a Buddha image has been carved in straight and perpendicular form.
A broken water vessel.
7.5.2. Visitor Information for Rājagala
Rājagala is located near Bakkiella, on the road between Ampara and Mahā Oya, sixteen miles north of Ampara. At present,
transportation to the site is limited, and pilgrims must travel independently.
Views of Rājagala foundation.
7.6. RITIGALA MOUNTAIN CAVES
Ritigala Mountain rises 2,513 feet above sea level, stretching three miles along a north–south axis. It is the highest mountain in northern Sri Lanka, and during the rainy season its summit is often shrouded in mist and clouds.
7.6.1. Origins of Ritigala and the Pansakulika Ascetic Monks
According to the Mahāvaṃsa chronicle, Ritigala was known by several ancient names, including Arittha Pabbata, “arittha” meaning “majestic” or “secure” and “pabbata” meaning “mountain.”
In the great Hindu epic tradition, it is said that from this very place, the monkey-god Hanuman returned to India to inform Rāma that his abducted wife Sītā had been found.
Ritigala Mountain Caves.
Ritigala contains at least seventy caves, which served as hermitages of Buddhist monks from the first century BCE to the early centuries CE.
At the entrance of one such cave stands an inscription stating that King Lanjatissa, brother of Dutthagāmani, established the first Buddhist cave dwelling at Ritigala.
The Cūḷavaṃsa relates that King Sena I later built a monastery here for the Pansakulika monks, providing them with a great number of lay attendants for service and support. The remains of this ancient rock monastery can still be seen today.
The ancient rock Ritigala Cave.
By the eighth century, Ritigala became home to a community of Pansakulika forest ascetics, who observed thirteen austere dhutaṅga practices. The term Pansakulika literally means “wearers of robes made of discarded scraps,”pansa (hundred)
+ kula (pieces), referring to robes stitched from many pieces of
discarded cloth, often shroud-cloth collected from cemeteries.
The Pansakulika monks were highly revered and received support from kings, nobles, and lay devotees alike. However, over the centuries, their ascetic discipline gradually became symbolic rather than actual, and the monks began to accumulate large estates and wealth.
By the twelfth century, the order had divided into two rival factions, one austere, one non-austere. During the reign of Vijayabāhu I, many Pansakulikas left Ritigala and Polonnaruwa, as their properties were confiscated during royal efforts to reorganize and unify the Sangha.
Thereafter, the ascetic Pansakulika lineage gradually disappeared from historical records.
7.6.2. Architecture of the Ritigala Mountain Caves
All the cave dwellings at Ritigala used by the ascetic Pansakulika monks exhibit architectural features unique in the history of Sri Lankan Buddhist art. These include long stone-paved walkways often with circular turning courts, stone-lined reservoirs, tiered stairways, and distinctive connecting bridges, as well as numerous double-platform structures of simple yet deeply meditative aesthetic.
These constructions were fashioned from enormous slabs of stone, together with smaller, precisely cut blocks skillfully arranged to form elegant and refined architectural compositions.
One section of the Ritigala Mountain caves.
No stūpas or shrines remain in this area, only the foundations, terraces, and rock walls formed from massive natural stones, as illustrated above.
The site presently contains around fifty double-platform foundations and the remains of monastic structures spread across 120 acres. To the left of the parking area at Ritigala is a rugged path leading through dense forest to several caves in which eight monks currently reside. This is still an active meditation monastery, and devotees frequently visit to offer alms.
A large reservoir was constructed to store the waters of two streams flowing from the summit with a capacity of two million gallons. Its circumference is 1,200 feet, the interior is stone- lined, and steps have been built for monks and local residents to bathe.
A long stone stairway, extending nearly 1,000 feet, leads to the Ritigala Cave Monastery ruins. It runs along the southern edge of the reservoir, crosses a small bridge, and continues towards the first group of monastic remains.
These steps lead you to the caves on Ritigala Mountain.
Since there are no nearby villages, the monks are unable to go on daily almsrounds for food. Devout lay followers therefore donate rice, which is prepared by several resident attendants of the monastery and then offered to the monks.
One base of the Ritigala mountain caves.
7.6.3. Visitor Information for Ritigala
The turnoff to Ritigala lies along the Anurādhapura– Polonnaruwa main road, four miles from Ganawalpola and sixteen miles from Habarana. The archaeological site is situated three miles from the junction.
7.7. SITHULPAWWA RAJAMAHĀ CAVE MONASTERY
The Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery is located in the southeastern region of Sri Lanka, one of the most arid, remote, and desolate areas of the island, today forming a major section of Yala National Park.
It is precisely in this seemingly unremarkable wilderness that one of the most renowned, vibrant, and influential monastic communities in the Buddhist world once flourished: the Sithulpawwa Cave Monastery.
Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery.185.
- Eslam Mohammed Abdelmaksoud, Sithulpawwa Monastery, photograph, Pexels, accessed April 14, 2026.
7.7.1. History of Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery
Sithulpawwa was known in ancient times as Cittalapabbata, meaning “Hill of the Quiet Mind,” a dwelling place of noble ones, for only saints would choose to live in solitude, secluded in deep forest and mountain wilderness, far removed from worldly bustle.
Front of the Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery.
According to tradition, in the second century BCE, King Kakavanna Tissa of Rohana founded the first monastery here. Unlike the great monastic establishments in Anurādhapura and other towns, life at Sithulpawwa was extremely difficult, especially regarding food. Yet the monks and nuns cared only for the profound stillness of the mountain caves, which facilitated their meditative absorption. Thus, from very early times, Sithulpawwa was venerated as the abode of arahants.
7.7.2. Enlightenment on Sithulpawwa Mountain
A story is told of a monk named Tissa, who wished to descend the mountain due to the harsh living conditions. The teacher, endowed with deep wisdom, knew that if the disciple remained a little longer at Sithulpawwa, he would attain enlightenment. The master therefore asked him to help build a small hut before
leaving, saying, “I am old now; please help me erect a new hut before you go. And do not forget to build it with mindfulness.”
After completing the hut, the disciple was exhausted. The teacher advised him to stay one more night and descend the following morning. The disciple agreed and rested in the hut. Mindful in all postures, walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, his mind became clear and unobstructed, and by dawn he attained enlightenment, realizing the vast purity of his mind.
Because of this narrative, the mountain grew even more revered, and many monks came to practice there. At one time, as many as 12,000 monks lived at Sithulpawwa.
Today, the site contains over 160 caves on the mountain. A number of these are large and historically well attested.
7.7.3. Architecture of the Sithulpawwa Cave Monastery
Ascending the mountain, one first encounters an ancient stone stairway leading to a white hemispherical stūpa, alongside two sepulchral monuments of King Gajabahuka Gamini and King Karillha, with inscriptions dating back to the first century CE. These were likely the rulers who founded and supported the Sithulpawwa hermitage.
To the north lie the foundation remains of the monastic complex. At the summit stands the Mahā Sithulpawwa Stūpa, dating to the third century, restored in the 1950s.
To the east is the largest cave among the many at Sithulpawwa. Traces of mural paintings still survive on the ceiling of the main chamber. In front of the cave stands a small modern shrine containing a statue of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, one of the finest works of ancient Sri Lankan art. Although the arms are missing, the sculpture radiates serene compassion. It dates to the fourth century, indicating that at least some Mahāyāna monks
practiced there during that time.
Before anthropomorphic Buddha images emerged in the third century CE, early Buddhism used large rectangular stone slabs, symbolic “āsanas” or “thrones” as sacred focal points representing the Enlightened One, towards which devotees offered homage and prayers.
A seated Buddha statue
at the Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery.
The Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) contains an account of such a throne at Sithulpawwa, located south of the cave.186. Since each monastery typically possessed only one principal seat of worship, this confirms that the āsana mentioned in the
- Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (trans.), The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010 [or 1975/1991 editions]), p. 91 (or see Chapter III, § 91 in some editions; the reference occurs in the context of stories about elders at Cittalapabbata monastery).
Visuddhimagga is indeed the main sanctuary of the Sithulpawwa cave complex.
7.7.4. Visitor Information for Sithulpawwa Rajamahā Cave Monastery
Situated eleven miles from Kataragama, fourteen miles from Yala, and seventeen miles from Tissamahārama, Sithulpawwa is an ancient Buddhist monastery nestled deep within the natural landscape of Yala National Park, Sri Lanka.
7.8. DAMBULLA ROYAL CAVE TEMPLE
The Dambulla Royal Cave Temple is located in the central region of Sri Lanka. Dambulla lies ninety-two miles east of Colombo, forty-five miles north of Kandy, and twenty-seven miles north of Matale.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương with her monastic disciples at the entrance of the Dambulla Royal Cave Temple on July 11, 2023.
The Sinhalese call the rock cave Dambulu Gala (the Rock of Dambulla), and the temple is referred to as Rangiri Dambulu
Vihāra (the Golden Rock of Dambulla).
The Buddha seated in meditation inside one of the cave temples, July 11, 2023.
This is the largest rock cave temple in Sri Lanka, constructed on a rock rising 600 feet during the Anurādhapura period (first century BCE–993 CE) and the Polonnaruwa period (1073–1250 CE). It is the most remarkable cave complex found in Sri Lanka and has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
7.8.1. History of Dambulla Cave Complex
The Dambulla Cave Temple was first established during the reign of King Vattagamini Abhaya (103 BCE and 89–77 BCE), commonly known among the Sinhalese as King Valagamba. During an invasion from south India, the king was compelled to abandon his kingdom of Anurādhapura. For twelve years, King Valagamba lived in hiding and frequently visited these caves to take refuge and ensure his safety. After regaining the kingdom of Anurādhapura and ascending the throne once more, as an expression of gratitude for the shelter these caves had provided, he converted them into the Buddhist Dambulla Cave Temple.
A vibrant, painted stone statue of the Buddha within the Dambulla Cave Monastery, July 11, 2023.
The king had enclosing walls constructed and small drip-ledges carved along the large rock caves to protect them from rainfall and prevent water from seeping inside. The three temples within this cave complex established by the king are known as Devarajalena, Mahārajalena, and Paccimalena.
A reclining Buddha statue
inside the Dambulla Cave Temple, July 11, 2023.
After the reign of King Vattagamini Abhaya, the Dambulla Cave Temple did not receive royal patronage for many centuries,
until the ascension of King Vijayabahu I (1055–1110 CE). Having made Polonnaruwa his capital, the king restored the cave shrines, supported the monastic community practicing in the Dambulla caves and the surrounding cave dwellings. King Keerthi Sri Nissankamalla (1187–1196) further renovated many Buddha images, commissioned new ones, and gilded seventy- three Buddha statues within the Dambulla Cave Temple.
Bhikkhunīs of Hương Sen meditating inside the Dambulla Caves, July 11, 2023.
Kings Buwanekabahu (1372–1408), Vickramabahu III (1360– 1374), Rajasinha I (1581–1591), and Vimala Dhammasuriya I (1592–1604) were other monarchs of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries acknowledged for their contributions to the renovation of the Cave Temple, thereby helping transform the Dambulla Cave Temple into one of the significant Buddhist centers of the world, adorned with exquisite ancient Buddhist artworks.
The Pilgrimage Delegation from Hương Sen Temple by the lotus pond of Dambulla, July 11, 2023.
7.8.2. Architecture of Dambulla Cave Complex
Dambulla is situated upon a massive rock rising 600 feet and extending over 2,000 feet in length, at an elevation of 1,118 feet above sea level, and 525 feet above the surrounding plain. The complex comprises eighty caves containing 157 Buddha statues. Among these, five caves are adorned with world-renowned, vividly colored mural paintings depicting the life of the Buddha. Notably, a magnificent mural of 6,890 square feet, illustrating the temptation of Māra, was painted around the second century BCE (Anurādhapura period), along with numerous other murals from various centuries reaching up to the Kandyan period of the eighteenth century.
The site contains many masterpieces of Buddha images in standing, seated meditation, teaching, and reclining (parinibbāna) postures, most of them larger than life-size. Additionally, there are three statues of Sri Lankan kings and four statues of deities and goddesses. The Dambulla Cave Temple stands as one of the most distinguished representations of ancient Sinhalese carving and sculptural art.
The Pilgrimage Delegation from Hương Sen Temple by the lotus pond of Dambulla, July 11, 2023.
From left: Śrāmaṇerī Viên Lành, Venerable Siri Sumedha, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương (brown robes) and Bhikṣuṇī Viên Nhuận at the front of the Dambulla caves, July 11, 2023.
Another noteworthy aspect is that archaeological evidence of Buddhist ritual objects found here has led archaeologists to assert that this cave and many of the surrounding caves of the 492-foot-rock were also utilized during prehistoric times. Thus, the Dambulla caves existed long before the recorded history of Sri Lanka.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương in front of the Rangiri Dambulla Golden Buddha Statue Temple, July 11, 2023.
From left: Bhikṣuṇī Viên Nhuận, Śrāmaṇerī Viên Lành, Mrs. Viên Lệ, Bhikṣuṇī Viên Giác, Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương (brown robes), Bhikṣuṇī Viên Bảo, Mrs. Viên Đào,
Bhikṣuṇī Trí Minh and Bhikṣuṇī Viên Đạo with the banner of Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation
at the front of Dambulla Golden Buddha image, July 11, 2023.
7.8.3. Golden Buddha Temple in Dambulla Town
The Golden Buddha Statue is situated along the road of Dambulla Town, between the ancient capital Anurādhapura and the Aloka Cave Temple.
The Golden Temple (Rangiri Dambulla Temple) features a media and broadcasting channel, a vegetarian food shop, spacious temple grounds, and numerous statues of monks on almsround.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương in front of the office of the Golden Buddha Statue Temple (Rangiri Dambulla Temple), July 11, 2023.
7.8.4. Visitor Information for Dambulla Cave Temple
The Dambulla Cave Temple, recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in Sri Lanka, is located in the central region
of the country, forty miles southeast of Colombo and forty-five miles north of Kandy. From the main road, a walk of less than a mile leads to broad, long stone steps ascending to the cave temples situated atop a vast hill. From the cave complex, one can behold expansive views of the town and the rolling mountains stretching into the distance.
Situated at the center of the cultural triangle, Anurādhapura, Polonnaruwa, and Kandy, pilgrims may reach the Dambulla Cave Temple by traveling from Kandy via the A9 road, passing through Dambulla and Anurādhapura. The temple lies along the main road, forty-two miles from Kandy, and the entrance to the Rock Temple is a mile from Dambulla Town.
Nuns paying homage at a reclining Buddha (parinibbāna) statue at the Dambulla Cave Temple, July 11, 2023.
***
Chapter 8
White Stūpas With Hemispherical Architecture
hen discussing the architecture of Sri Lankan temples, three essential elements are generally identified:
• A Bodhi tree must be planted within the temple compound, propagated from the sacred Bodhi tree in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura or from Bodhgayā in India.
• The main shrine hall should be of moderate size (not necessarily large) and of simple design.
• A white stūpa (cetiya) with hemispherical architecture, serving as a reliquary for sacred relics, ritual implements, and scriptures. The stūpa may be constructed at any location within the temple grounds that is spatially appropriate.
In ancient times, prior to the Common Era, the inhabitants of Sri Lanka practiced Hinduism, and their folk traditions centered on the worship of mountain deities and tree spirits. Drawing upon these indigenous beliefs, towering stūpas crowned with hemispherical domes came to symbolize the Bodhi mountain
or the tree of enlightenment. After Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka, the populace gradually developed faith in the teachings of Sākyamuni Buddha and began to cultivate moral discipline (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā), with liberation as their ultimate aim.
A white stūpa with hemispherical architecture, considered from top to bottom, consists of four components:
• The pointed spire at the summit, composed of nine segments symbolizing the ninefold divisions of the Teacher’s doctrine.
• The Four Noble Truths.187.
• The rounded dome of the stūpa, which enshrines relics and sacred objects.
• Three circular bands symbolizing the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha.
This section introduces several hemispherical stūpas that are included among the sixteen principal sacred sites (solosmasthānas) of Sri Lanka, with particular attention to those locations traditionally believed to have been visited by
- The Four Noble Truths (Cattāri Ariyasaccāni) is the Sino-Vietnamese rendering of the Sanskrit Catvāry Āryasatyāni. “Ārya” means “noble,” “excellent,” or “sublime,” while satya means “truth” or “reality.” The Four Noble Truths are therefore also referred to as the Four True Truths, the Four Sacred Truths, or the Four Sublime Truths.
The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): the actual condition of suffering inherent in human existence.
The Truth of the Origin of Suffering (Samudaya): the source or cause that gives rise to suffering.
The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha): the ending or complete cessation of suffering.
The Truth of the Path (Magga): the path or method of practice leading to the cessation of suffering.
https://thuvienhoasen.org/a11636/bai-1-bon-chan-ly-tu-dieu-de
the Buddha.188.
• The ancient great monastery of Ampara Dīghavāpi (associated with the third visit of the Blessed One)
• The Kantarodai complex of stūpas
• The Kiri Vihāra Stūpa at Polonnaruwa
• The Kiri Vihāra Stūpa at Kataragama
• The Panama Kudumbigala monastic complex
• The Mahiyangana Stūpa
• The ancient great monastery of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra: Dīghavāpi (associated with the second visit of the Blessed One)
• The Tissa Mahārama Stūpa
- The Mahiyangana Rāja Mahā Vihāra Stūpa is among the principal sacred sites of Sri Lanka. The Sixteen Principal Sacred Places (Solosmasthānas) traditionally include:
1. Mahiyangana (Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihāra/Stūpa)
2. Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra
3. Kelaniya Rāja Mahā Vihāra
4. Sri Pāda (the Sacred Footprint Mountain)
5. Divā Guhāva (Batatotalena Cave)
6. Dīghavāpi Rāja Mahā Vihāra
7. Muthiyangana Rāja Mahā Vihāra
8. Tissamaharama Rāja Mahā Vihāra
9. Sri Mahā Bodhi, the Sacred Bodhi Tree
10. Mirisawetiya Dagoba (Stūpa)
11. Ruwanweliseya Stūpa
12. Thuparamaya Stūpa
13. Abhayagiri Stūpa
14. Jetavanārāma Stūpa
15. Sela Cetiya Stūpa
16. Kiri Vihāra the White Stūpa
See: https://www.nekhor.org/sites-of-sri-lanka
8.1. DĪGHAVĀPI ANCIENT GREAT MONASTERY
Dīghavāpi, also rendered as Deegavapi or Deeghawapi (Pāli: Dīghavāpi meaning “long reservoir” or “great water tank”) is an ancient stūpa believed to have been constructed around the third century BCE. It is located in eastern Sri Lanka, thirteen miles east of the town of Ampara.
Dīghavāpi is revered as one of the sixteen principal sacred sites (solosmasthānas) of Sri Lanka, as recorded in the Dīpavaṃsa, which states that the Buddha visited this place during his third journey to Ceylon.189. Despite its eminent religious and historical significance, Dīghavāpi has remained comparatively less well known than other major sacred sites, and even today it is rarely visited by pilgrims or tourists.
Dīghavāpi Stūpa.
8.1.1. History of Dīghavāpi
During the Buddha’s second visit to the island of Ceylon, Maṇi Akkhika, the Nāga chieftain and ruler of Kelaniya, respectfully invited the Buddha to visit Kelaniya on a subsequent occasion. In the eighth year before his parinibbāna, the Buddha resolved
189. Dīpavaṃsa II. 60; also mentioned in Mahāvaṃsa I.78. Dīghavāpi is traditionally counted as the sixth of the sixteen principal sacred sites (solosmasthānas) hallowed by the Buddha’s third visit to Sri Lanka.
to undertake his third journey to Sri Lanka, with Kelaniya as a principal destination. On this third visit, the Buddha, accompanied by five hundred arahants, came to Dīghavāpi and spent time there engaged in meditation.
According to the Mahāvaṃsa, the great chronicle of Sri Lanka, the Dīghavāpi Stūpa was constructed by King Saddhatissa (r. 137–119 BCE). The king is said to have adorned the stūpa by offering decorative nets, golden lotus flowers, and various precious gemstones.
The Mahāvaṃsa records:
Moreover, King Saddhatissa established the Dīghavāpi- vihāra together with its cetiya and dome. For this cetiya, the king caused a net-like covering to be made, with each mesh inlaid with precious stones, and adorned with a large golden flower, beautifully fashioned like the wheel of a chariot, as an offering symbolizing the eighty-four thousand divisions of the Blessed One’s Teaching. He further commanded that eighty-four thousand offerings be presented to the Sangha. Through this immeasurable merit, after his death the king was reborn in the heavenly realm among the devas of Tusita.190.
Popular belief holds that it was at this very site that the Buddha personally meditated and bestowed his blessings. The historian Ellāwela Medānanda Thero has also expressed the view that the relic of the Buddha’s fingernail is enshrined within the Dīghavāpi Stūpa.
Archaeological excavations have uncovered an inscription engraved on a gold leaf, indicating that King Kāvantissa (r. 164–192 BCE) undertook renovations of the stūpa. Over time, however, Dīghavāpi fell into neglect due to internal conflicts
- Mahāvaṃsa 33 (trans. Wilhelm Geiger, The Mahāvaṃsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon, London: Pāli Text Society, 1912.
within the country. Recognizing the dilapidated condition of the monument, King Kīrti Śrī Rājasiṃha (r. 1747–1781) initiated a major restoration. In 1756, he entrusted the monastery to Venerable Bandigide Negrodha Thero, together with a land grant of one thousand amunu (2,000–2,500 acres).191.
To this day, two stone inscriptions dating from the reigns of King Saddhatissa and King Kīrti Śrī Rājasiṃha, as well as an inscription bearing the name Rājasiṃha carved in 1845, remain extant at Dīghavāpi.
The foundation of Dīghavāpi Stūpa.
The Dīghavāpi Stūpa is regarded as highly sacred. According to tradition, a young monk once slipped and injured his leg while repairing the stūpa. Thereafter, he devoutly recited the Dhajagga Sutta at the site, and miraculously his leg was restored to normal, as if no accident had occurred. From that time onward, many devoted benefactors were inspired to contribute to the restoration and maintenance of this sacred monument.
In the 1920s, both lay Buddhists and the authorities made renewed efforts to rehabilitate the stūpa. However, due to the exhaustion of funds, only half of the dome could be reconstructed.
191. Dighavapi,” Lanka Excursions Holidays, accessed April 2, 2026, https:// www.lanka-excursions-holidays.com/dighavapi.html
Surrounding the stūpa today are large stone blocks, remnants of ancient architectural structures.
8.1.2. Visitor Information for Dīghavāpi Stūpa
Ampara is the nearest major town to the Dīghavāpi Stūpa. From Ampara, one travels by road to Irakkamam, and then proceeds a further three miles, for a total distance of eleven miles. Beyond Irakkamam, the roads remain largely undeveloped, and no public bus services currently operate to this area.
The main shrine hall housing the Buddha image near the Dīghavāpi Stūpa.
8.2. KANTARODAI STŪPA COMPLEX
In the early twentieth century, numerous Buddhist remains were still to be found on the Jaffna Peninsula. Today, however, most of these sites have nearly disappeared due to neglect, petty theft, or deliberate destruction. One location that pilgrims may still visit is the Kantarodai Stūpa complex situated to the north of the town of Jaffna.
Nestled beside a pleasant grove of palm trees is a group of
stūpas and earthen mounds, remnants of the foundations of ancient buildings. At present, twenty small stūpas remain intact; nevertheless, the visible foundations indicate that many more once stood at this site.
8.2.1. Architecture of the Kantarodai Stūpa Complex
The largest stūpa at Kantarodai has a diameter of twenty-three feet, while the smallest measures six feet. The bases of the stūpas are constructed from coral stone, arranged in four stepped tiers. The hemispherical domes are made of coral rubble, coated with a layer of plaster, giving them the appearance of solid stone structures.
The Kantarodai Stūpa complex.
The pointed finials (hāmikā) are fashioned from single blocks of stone, though in some cases they consist of two joined pieces.
Archaeological excavations conducted at Kantarodai in 1966– 1967 revealed evidence of continuous habitation at the site from the second century BCE to the thirteenth century CE. When P. E. Pieris visited the area in 1917, he noted the presence of several Buddha images and observed that local inhabitants frequently removed stones from the site for their own construction purposes.
Kantarodai is generally considered to have been a monastic complex for Tamil Buddhist monks, although some scholars have questioned this interpretation. Nevertheless, Buddhism was widely practiced in south India in ancient times, and there is no compelling reason to doubt that some Tamil communities living in Sri Lanka were also Buddhists.192.
8.2.2. Visitor Information for Kantarodai Stūpa Complex
From Jaffna town, proceed along the Chunnakam Road heading north until reaching the junction of Kantarodai Upathiyayor Road, one mile from Chunnakam. From this point, walk for half a mile to reach the Kantarodai archaeological site. The total distance from Jaffna to the Kantarodai Stūpas is six miles.
Mound-of-rice-shaped Kantarodai Stūpas.
8.3. POLONNARUWA KIRI VIHĀRA:
THE MILK-WHITE STŪPA
Kiri Vihāra was originally known as Rūpavatī cetiya (Sacred Gift) and is also referred to as Magul Mahāsāya. Because of its distinctive milky-white exterior, resulting from a white
- Dhammika, Sacred Island, p. 198. Online version on BuddhaNet (https:// www.buddhanet.net/sacred-island/kantarodai/, accessed April 2, 2026).
plaster coating applied to its hemispherical dome, it came to be popularly known as the Milk-White Stūpa. The stūpa is located in the ancient capital city of Polonnaruwa.193.
Kiri Vihāra stands with solemn dignity, prominently visible within the surrounding landscape.
8.3.1. History of Kiri Vihāra Stūpa
After defeating the invading Chola forces in 1070 CE and reunifying the island of Ceylon, King Vijayabāhu I (r. 1055– 1110; traditionally dated here as 1153–1186 in some sources) transferred the capital from Anurādhapura to Polonnaruwa, establishing it as the second ancient capital. This relocation followed the devastation of Anurādhapura in 993 CE.
The Kiri Vihāra Stūpa was constructed by Queen Subhadrā, the consort of King Parākramabāhu I, as an act of devotion and merit-making.
8.3.2. Architecture of Kiri Vihāra
Kiri Vihāra was built in the eleventh century during the medieval period. True to its name, the stūpa is coated with a white
193. Kiri Vehera, HistoryHit.
plaster resembling the color of milk, which gives its distinctive appearance. Its architectural design is austere and restrained, consisting primarily of a white hemispherical structure without elaborate ornamentation.
Several vahalkada (frontispieces), varying in size and form, are positioned around the stūpa. These serve as platforms for offerings such as flowers and incense, or for the enshrinement of small Buddha images.
The dagoba, or domed stūpa with surrounding vahalkada, represents a distinctive feature of Sri Lankan Buddhist art and architecture. Kiri Vihāra is remarkable in that it has endured for more than 1,200 years, remaining largely intact despite prolonged exposure to weather and natural erosion.
Within the ancient city of Polonnaruwa, Rankoth Vihāra is regarded as the largest stūpa, while Kiri Vihara is considered the second largest. Kiri Vihāra forms part of the archaeological complex known as Alahana Pirivena.194.
8.3.3. Visitor Information for Polonnaruwa Kiri Vihāra
Kiri Vihāra is located fourteen miles from Tissamahārama and four miles from Polonnaruwa town. The roads are well maintained, and transportation is generally convenient and accessible.
From major cities such as Colombo, pilgrims and visitors can reach Polonnaruwa by bus, train, taxi, or ride-hailing services such as Uber. Polonnaruwa lies 134 miles from Colombo (six hours by bus) and sixty-five miles from Anurādhapura (three hours by bus). Within the city itself, tuk-tuks provide a simple and practical means of transportation.
- “Kiri Vihara,” History Hit.
- KATARAGAMA KIRI VIHĀRA STŪPA
The Kiri Vihāra Stūpa is located in Kataragama, near Tissamahārama in southeastern Sri Lanka. It is revered for its profound historical and spiritual significance, as the site traditionally commemorates the third visit of the Buddha to the island of Ceylon.
Festive observances at Kataragama Kiri Vihāra.
Kataragama Kiri Vihāra is also counted among the sixteen principal pilgrimage sites (solosmasthānas) of Sri Lankan Buddhism, and is regarded as one of the most sacred pilgrimage destinations on the island.195. Like Adam’s Peak (Sri Pāda), it attracts Sinhala Buddhists as well as Tamil Hindus, and is also frequented by Muslims and Christians, reflecting its uniquely inclusive religious character.
8.4.1. History of Kataragama Kiri Vihāra
According to the Dhātuvamsa, the Kataragama Kiri Vihāra dates back to 580 BCE, when Gautama Buddha, after attaining enlightenment, visited the kingdom of Mahāgāma, ruled by King Mahāsena, prior to proceeding to Tissamahārama. After listening to the Buddha’s discourse, King Mahāsena attained the first stage of sanctity, sotāpanna (the initial level of spiritual
- “The Solosmasthana,” Nekhor.
awakening), and took refuge in the Triple Gem.196.
The Buddha is said to have then presented the king with a lock of his hair and a sword, the latter being the very blade with which he had cut his hair when, as Prince Siddhattha, he renounced the household life.
Following this encounter, King Mahāsena constructed the Kiri Vihāra Stūpa at Kataragama, at the place where the Buddha had been seated while teaching the Dhamma. The stūpa thus commemorated the Buddha’s visit and served as a reliquary for the lock of hair and the sword. The king further vowed to protect and uphold the Buddha’s dispensation.
A related tradition maintains that in the sixth century BCE, King Mahāsena, believed to have been a former incarnation of the Hindu war deity Murugan, widely venerated at Kataragama, encountered the Buddha Sākyamuni and took refuge in the Three Jewels. In memory of this meeting, he erected the Kiri Vihāra at Kataragama.
196. The Four Stages of Sanctity (cattāri ariyaphalāni) refer to the four spiritual attainments of the Śrāvaka (Disciple) Path, namely:
a. Sotāpanna (Sanskrit: śrotāpanna), translated as “stream-enterer.” This is the first noble attainment, marking entry into the stream leading irreversibly towards liberation.
b. Sakadāgāmi (Sanskrit: sakṛdāgāmin), translated as “Once-returner.” One who has attained this stage will be reborn in the human realm at most one more time before reaching final liberation.
c. Anāgāmi (Sanskrit: anāgāmin), translated as “Non-returner.” One at this level will not return to the cycle of rebirth in the sense-desire realm, having overcome the causes that lead to such rebirth.
d. Arahant (Sanskrit: arhat), translated as “Worthy One” or “One who is no longer subject to rebirth.” An arahant has completely eradicated all defilements and brought the cycle of birth and death to an end. This is the highest attainment of the Śrāvaka path, also referred to as Nirvāṇa with remainder (sa-upādisesa- nibbāna), traditionally described as the nirvāṇa realized in the so-called “Lesser Vehicle” (Hīnayāna).
See:
https://phatgiao.org.vn/tu-dien-phat-hoc-online/bon-qua-thanh-k27591.html https://mysltravel.com/tour-destination/sri-lanka/kataragama/kiri-vehera/
The relationship that emerged between the Buddha Sākyamuni and deity Murugan is understood to have fostered peaceful coexistence and mutual closeness between Buddhists and Hindus in the region, inspiring a spirit of tolerance and harmony among followers of diverse cultures and religious traditions.
In this sense, the Kataragama Kiri Vihāra Stūpa holds not only historical significance but also symbolizes interreligious friendship, particularly between Buddhism and Hinduism, as well as the long-standing cultural ties between India and Sri Lanka.
The term Kiri Vihāra literally means “Milk Stūpa.” The monument is situated within a grove of kihir trees, from which it was originally known as Kihir Vehara. Over time, for ease of pronunciation, the name evolved into Kiri Vihāra.
Ancient sources record that Kiri Vihāra was formerly called Magul Mahāsāya, and is known today as the “Milk Stūpa” because the entire monumental structure is coated in a pure white plaster, resembling the color of cow’s milk.
The Kataragama Kiri Vihāra Stūpa.197.
Like Anurādhapura, Kataragama is regarded as one of the earliest settlements established by ministers of King Vijaya.
- Sanarth Sri Lanka, Kataragama Kiri Vehera, Wikimedia Commons.
Behind the Kiri Vihāra Stūpa stands a sacred Bodhi tree, one of the eight saplings propagated from the original Sri Mahā Bodhi at Anurādhapura, brought from India by Venerable Sanghamittā Therī.
8.4.2. Architecture of Kataragama Kiri Vihāra
The ghaṭākāra-type stūpa form is described as basin-shaped, hemispherical, domed, or resembling a heap of grain and rises to a height of ninety-five feet with a circumference of 2,600 feet. It stands upon a broad platform measuring 130 square feet in area and ten feet in height. The stūpa underwent a major restoration in 1912. Owing to its serene and purified atmosphere, the site attracts numerous devotees and visitors, both local and international, who come to pay homage, meditate, and offer prayers.198.
8.4.3. Visitor Information for Kataragama Kiri Vihāra
Kataragama is a highly sacred pilgrimage town for Buddhists, Hindus, and the indigenous Vedda community of Sri Lanka. Devotees from south India also travel to this town to perform religious observances. Pilgrims can easily explore the lively town and visit sacred sites such as Kataragama Kiri Vihāra by traveling in tuk-tuks, which are readily available.
Although Kataragama was a small village during the medieval period, it has today developed into a rapidly growing town, surrounded by fertile tropical forests in southeastern Sri Lanka, located 142 miles from Colombo.
- “Kiri Vehera, Kataragama,” Holidify.
Night view of Kataragama Kiri Vihāra.199.
A view of Kataragama Kiri Vihāra.200.
- Nipuna Gamage, Kiri Vehera, Wikimedia Commons.
200. David Stanley, Kiri Vehera, Wikimedia Commons.
8.5. KUDUMBIGALA CAVE MONASTERY
The Kudumbigala Cave Monastery is situated eleven miles from the village of Panama and seventeen miles from the town of Kumana.
Hidden within dense forest along the Panama–Kumana Road, the monastery is perched atop a massive rocky outcrop. Within and beneath these rock formations are numerous caves, traditionally said to have been donated by the army of King Dutugemunu.
8.5.1. History of Kudumbigala Cave Monastery
According to historical records, the Kudumbigala Cave Monastery was established by King Devanampiyatissa in the second century BCE. It functioned as a secluded retreat for Buddhist monks seeking solitude for meditation and spiritual realization, far removed from the bustle of urban life.
Steps leading to Kataragama Kiri Vihāra.
Because of its remote location deep within mountainous forest, far from human settlements, the resident monks lived under austere conditions, possessing only the most basic requisites necessary to sustain their daily practice.201.
- “Kudumbigala,” The Miracle Island.
8.5.2. Architecture of Kudumbigala Cave Monastery
The Kudumbigala Cave Monastery extends across an area of 600 acres, encompassing lush, verdant mountain forests of striking natural beauty. The monastic complex is largely intact and contains more than 200 caves, many of which have walls plastered with lime and adorned with remarkable mural paintings.
Archaeological investigations have identified over 200 Buddhist cave dwellings, many of which had suffered erosion over time and are now undergoing gradual restoration. These findings indicate that Kudumbigala was once a flourishing monastic center, inhabited by a substantial community of forest-dwelling monks engaged in contemplative practice.
In front of one of the caves, a Brāhmī inscription, together with other archaeological evidence discovered in the vicinity, indicates that Kudumbigala functioned as an arañña senāsanaya, a forest-dwelling cave monastery, during the pre-Christian era.
A rock inscription records that King Dutugemunu, together with the warrior Nandimitra, constructed the Mahā Sudarśana Lena cave as an offering to the arahants.
Kudumbigala has over 200 ancient rock caves, simple natural shelters with drip ledges and some Brahmi inscriptions.202.
- AntonO, Kudumbigala Sanctuary, Wikimedia Commons.
There also remains, resting quietly on the summit of the Kudumbigala monastery, an ancient cylindrical dagoba-like stone structure, an architectural relic dating back to the reign of King Devanampiyatissa.
8.5.3. Visitor Information for Kudumbigala Cave Monastery
The Kudumbigala Cave Monastery lies eleven miles from the inhabited village of Panama. Upon arrival in the area, pilgrims must proceed on foot through dense forest to reach the base of the rocky hill, as no vehicular access roads are available.
After a leisurely ascent to the summit, visitors are greeted by a cylindrical dagoba and a Buddha image shrine situated nearby, along with a sacred Bodhi tree planted by devotees. Of particular interest are the natural rock caves within the mountain, where a few monks continue to reside in seclusion, leading simple meditative lives in harmony with nature.
- MAHIYANGANAYA STŪPA
The Mahiyanganaya Stūpa is situated on the banks of the Mahāveli River, in Badulla District, Uva Province, Sri Lanka. According to tradition, Gautama Buddha visited Mahiyanganaya nine months after his enlightenment, on the full-moon day of Duruthu (December–January) in order to resolve a conflict between the Yakkhas and the Nāgas. This visit is regarded as the first visit of the Buddha to Sri Lanka.
The Mahiyanganaya Stūpa standing majestically amid rows of ceremonial flags.
Mahiyanganaya isoneofthe sixteen sacred sites (solosmasthānas) of Sri Lanka and today constitutes an important archaeological site of the country.
8.6.1. History of Mahiyanganaya Stūpa
According to the Mahāvaṃsa, Sri Lanka at that time was inhabited by numerous Yakkhas.203. The Buddha came from India to subdue and pacify these beings and to teach them the Dhamma. Having been converted, the Yakkhas are said to have relocated to an island called Giri, thereby restoring peace to the island of Ceylon. The rulers and the populace alike welcomed the Buddha, listened attentively to his teachings, and took refuge in the Three Jewels.
- “Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihara,” Wikipedia, s.v. “Buddha’s visit,” accessed April 2, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahiyangana_Raja_ Maha_Vihara. (The Mahāvaṃsa records that this was the site of the Buddha’s first visit to Sri Lanka.) Also see Mahāvaṃsa I.19–36 (Geiger trans., 1912). The text describes how the Buddha visited the great gathering of Yakkhas at the Mahānāga Garden (the site of the future Mahiyangana Stūpa), subdued them by striking terror into their hearts and then preached the Dhamma, resulting in the conversion of many beings.
A Yakkha leader named Saman attained the stage of stream- entry (sotāpanna) upon hearing the Buddha’s discourse. He then requested a sacred token to venerate in the Buddha’s absence. In response, the Buddha bestowed upon him a lock of his hair, which Saman later enshrined in a small stūpa ten feet high. This is traditionally regarded as the first stūpa ever built in Sri Lanka, possibly the original Mahiyangana Stūpa itself.
The Mahāvaṃsa further relates that after the Buddha’s parinibbāna, following the completion of the cremation rites, a monk named Sarabhu brought a portion of the relic ashes to Sri Lanka and enshrined them in a jeweled shrine, identified with the Mahiyangana Stūpa as it exists today.
Entrance sign for the Mahiyanganaya Stūpa.
An inscription dating to the tenth century extols the merits of pilgrimage to Mahiyangana and records that King Udaya IV, together with his retinue, undertook such a pilgrimage. Several kings of Kandy are also known to have paid homage here: King Narendrasinha is said to have visited twice, while King Vīra Wickrama completed the entire pilgrimage on foot. These accounts attest to the site’s longstanding reputation for sanctity,
attracting even royal pilgrims in the past.204.
8.6.2. Architecture of the Mahiyanganaya Stūpa
The Mahāvaṃsa records that during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa, Prince Uddhaya Culabhaya undertook renovations, raising the height of the stūpa by forty-five feet. Subsequent rulers further improved and expanded the monument, most notably King Dutthagāmaṇī, who increased its height to 120 feet.
The Mahiyanganaya Stūpa after comprehensive restoration.
Other rulers, including Vohārika Tissa, Sena II, Vijayabāhu I, and Kīrti Śrī Rājasiṃha, carried out repairs and maintenance of the temple. In 1942, an association was established under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake to restore the site. Reconstruction commenced in 1953 and was completed in 1980 with the installation of a new pinnacle atop the stūpa.
Prior to restoration, the Department of Archaeology conducted a thorough investigation of the monument. An exhibition hall was opened, its walls adorned with vivid murals whose colors
204. “Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihara,” ToursLanka.
appear remarkably fresh. These paintings depict scenes such as the Buddha being assailed by Māra beneath the Bodhi tree, as well as representations of Brahmā, Śiva, Viṣṇu, and other deities. The relic chamber is believed to date from the eleventh century, during the reign of Vijayabāhu I, and is presently preserved in the Anurādhapura Museum.
8.6.3. Visitor Information for Mahiyanganaya Stūpa
The Mahiyanganaya Stūpa is located twenty-six miles from Kandy. A variety of transportation options, including buses, taxis, and tuk-tuks, provide direct access to the site.
The Mahiyanganaya Stūpa at sunset.
8.7. NĀGADĪPA PURĀṆA VIHĀRA ANCIENT MONASTERY
The ancient great monastery, Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra, commonly known as Nāgadīpa Vihāra, is located on Nainativu Island, also called Nāga Island or Serpent Island, in northern Sri Lanka, thirty-five miles from India.
Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra is one of the sixteen sacred sites
(solosmasthānas) of Sri Lanka, because it is believed to be the
place where the Buddha visited during his second journey to Sri Lanka five years after his enlightenment.
A giant footprint, similar to those found on Sri Pāda (Adam’s Peak) and Delft Island, is believed to have been left by the Buddha on Nainativu Island. The account of the Buddha’s visit is recorded in the Mahāvaṃsa.
Nainativu Island is not only home to Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra, an important Buddhist pilgrimage site, but also to sacred Hindu and Tamil temples. As a result, the island is often crowded with pilgrims of different faiths, since ferries regularly dock to serve visitors to these three sacred sites.
8.7.1. History of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra
The sacred island of Nainativu is one of the main attractions of northern Sri Lanka. It is among the least inhabited islands in the Gulf of Mannar, located thirty-five miles from India. Since ancient times, merchants traveled to this island to collect conch shells, harvested from the warm shallow waters of the Gulf. These shells were commonly used in both Buddhist and Hindu religious rituals.
From ancient times, the island hosted sacred places of multiple religions, serving local people as well as seafaring merchants who came to pray for safety and prosperity. Pilgrims are known to have visited Nainativu from around the first century CE. For this reason, the Mahāvaṃsa mentions a jeweled throne and a stone bearing the Buddha’s footprint at Nāgadīpa, which pilgrims from India frequently came to venerate.205.
The Mahāvaṃsa also describes that as boats approached the main jetty, pilgrims would see the distinctive red-and-white striped walls of the Hindu temple. To the left stands a large rock inscription of King Parākramabāhu I, in which the king
- Nagadeepa Viharaya,” AmazingLanka.
states that foreigners arriving on the island were assisted by the king and his people, clearly referring to Indian merchants and pilgrims. The latter part of the inscription gives instructions on how to deal with shipwrecks involving vessels carrying elephants, horses, or trade goods. To the right of the entrance lies a large rock shaped like a lifebuoy and an ancient anchor, similar to those used on Arab ships.
According to the Mahāvaṃsa, the Buddha came to Nāgadīpa Island during his second visit to Sri Lanka, five years after enlightenment. The purpose of this journey was to resolve a violent dispute between two Nāga princes, Chūlodara and Mahodara, who both claimed rightful ownership of a richly jeweled throne. The Buddha taught them and reconciled the conflict. Eventually, the Nāga king offered the jeweled throne to the Buddha, who then sat upon it to deliver the Dhamma.
A parallel account of the Buddha’s visit, the sacred footprint, and the jeweled throne also appears in the classical Tamil epic, Manimekhalai.206.
This text recounts the story of an Indian temple dancer who was miraculously transported to Nainativu and became a Goddess of the Sea. There, she discovered the disputed jeweled throne. While worshipping it, she recalled her past life. Following the advice of the guardian deity of the throne, she later returned to India, took refuge in the Triple Gem, and ordained as a Buddhist nun.
The jeweled throne itself has long been a subject of debate, with traditions suggesting that it is enshrined either within the dagoba (stūpa) of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra or at Kelaniya Temple near Colombo.
Because Nāgadīpa is a place that was visited by the Buddha, it is highly revered by Buddhists both in Sri Lanka and abroad.
- “Nainativu (Nagadeepa),” Lanka Excursions Holidays.
In 1956, during the celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha’s parinibbāna according to the Theravāda Buddhist calendar, a bronze statue of the Buddha was donated to the temple by monks from Burma (present-day Myanmar).
8.7.2. Architecture of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra
From the Hindu temple, walking less than a mile down the road leads to the Nāgadīpa Stūpa, which marks the spot where the Buddha set foot during his second visit to this small island. On one side of the road stands a Bodhi tree, and on the other is a silver-painted stūpa. In addition, there are two other stūpas and a main shrine hall housing a bronze Buddha image donated by the government of Burma (Myanmar) in 1956.
As the temple complex was newly constructed in the 1950s, it appears spacious and well maintained. It includes a rectangular pond, at the center of which is a meditating Buddha image sheltered by a nine-headed Nāga, forming a protective canopy over the Buddha.
The ancient great monastery of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra.
8.7.3. Main Passage of the Mahāvaṃsa concerning Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra, (from Chapter 1, verses 44–45)207.
Now the most compassionate Teacher [the Buddha], the Victor, rejoicing in the salvation of the whole world, while dwelling at Jetavana (in the Kingdom of Kosālā in India) in the fifth year after His Enlightenment, perceived that a war had arisen over a jeweled throne, between the Nāga kings Mahodara and Chūlodara, uncle and nephew, along with their clans.
Therefore, the Perfectly Enlightened One, on the Uposatha day of the waning moon of the month Citta, early in the morning, taking His alms-bowl and robes, out of compassion for the Nāgas, went to Nāgadīpa, Ceylon. At that time, this Nāga Mahodara was a king endowed with miraculous power, ruling a Nāga kingdom in the ocean extending over half a thousand yojanas [at least 2,485 miles in length, far larger than the island of Nainativu]…
When the Blessed One consented in silence to come there, He planted a Rājāyatana tree on that very spot as a sacred memorial and sat upon the golden throne to preach the Dhamma.
Remember that I have used this golden seat and planted this Rājāyatana tree. Show reverence to them, O Nāga kings! Dear Nāgas, this will bring merit and happiness to all.
Having thus spoken words of praise and encouragement to the Nāgas, the Blessed One, the compassionate savior of the whole world, returned to Jetavana [in India].
- Mahāvaṃsa, Chapter 1, 44–45 (Geiger trans.).
The white Nāgadīpa Vihāra.
8.7.4. Visitor Information for Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra
Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra is located on Nainativu, an island located thirty-five miles from India. Visitors must travel by ferry or boat to reach Nainativu.
Nagadipa Buddhist Temple, Nainativu Island among the green coconut trees.208.
- Ghostface Buddha, Nagadipa Temple, Wikimedia Commons.
There are two jetties on the island: one serving the Hindu temple and the other serving the Buddhist temple of Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra. If most passengers are Hindu, the boat will dock first at the Hindu jetty; if most passengers are Buddhist, it will dock first at the Buddhist temple jetty.
Public buses and private taxis run regularly from Jaffna to Punkudutivu, and ferries are scheduled to depart shortly after the buses arrive. The total distance from Jaffna to Nainativu is nineteen miles.
Nāgadīpa Purāṇa Vihāra is located only a tenth of a mile from the Hindu pilgrimage site. It takes ten minutes on foot from Nāgapooshani Amman Kovil heading south. Tuk-tuks are also available for this short distance.
8.8. TISSAMAHĀRAMA ANCIENT MONASTERY
The Tissamahārama Stūpa is located in the town of Hambantota, in the southern part of Sri Lanka. The stūpa is majestic and pure white, with a solemn conical dome rising peacefully and quietly against the backdrop of the blue sky.
The pristine white dome of the Tissamahārama Stūpa rises majestically above a sea of emerald-green rice fields.209.209. Shehanw, Tissamaharama Stupa, Wikimedia Commons.
8.8.1. History of Tissamahārama Ancient Monastery
The town of Tissa (short for Tissamahārama) was the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Ruhuna in the second century BCE.
It was named after King Kavantissa, who made significant contributions to developing this sacred town, including the construction of the large Tissa Wewa reservoir and the nearby Debara Wewa Reservoir.
Archaeological excavations in 2010 at the site of the Tissamahārama Stūpa revealed early Tamil presence in Tissamahārama, evidenced by a Tamil Brahmi inscription on a black-and-red flat pottery shard.
Tissamahārama also contains a large man-made reservoir, Tissa Wewa, which is part of an ancient irrigation system. Other major reservoirs in the area include Yoda Wewa, Weerawila Wewa, Pannegamuwa Wewa, and Debara Wewa.
Excavations further uncovered evidence of early urban settlement dating back to the fourth century BCE, including baked bricks, horse saddles, triangular-sailed pottery (first–third centuries BCE), and a hospital (first–second century CE, one of the earliest in south Asia). Stone-paved roads with drainage and water channels dating to pre-Christian era, tiled roofs, plastered houses, and Tamil Brahmi inscriptions on pottery were also found. All this indicates that the Tissamahārama Stūpa is an ancient monument with origins predating the Common Era.
8.8.2. Architecture of Tissamahārama Ancient Monastery
The Tissamahārama Stūpa, built with a hemispherical design, has been renovated multiple times to achieve the magnificent and nearly perfect structure seen today.
Within the monastery grounds, there is a statue of Avalokiteśvara and a smaller Sandagiri Stūpa. There is also a giant Akaugoda
stone pillar with an inscription on its side, highlighting the historical and cultural significance of the site.
8.8.3. Visitor Information for Tissamahārama Ancient Monastery
Tissamahārama is a town in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka, located in the Hambantota District. It can be reached by bus or taxi from Colombo, Galle, or Matara.
From Tissamahārama, pilgrims and tourists can also visit other famous nearby sites such as Yala National Park, Kataragama, Tissa Dagoba, Yatala Dalada Wehera, and enjoy Ceylon Safari tours.
Tissamahārama Stūpa at night.
***
Chapter 9
Practical Information For Pilgrimage
And Devotional Travel
o have a meaningful and fulfilling spiritual pilgrimage, pilgrims are encouraged to learn about the country, climate, communication styles, cuisine, culture, customs,
and traditions of the island nation of Sri Lanka.
9.1. WEATHER PREPARATION
Sri Lanka has a hot and humid climate, except in the mountains and highlands, where the weather is cool throughout the year. Pilgrims should bring a wide-brimmed hat, sunscreen, sunglasses, and always keep a bottle of water with them.
Sri Lanka has two distinct seasons: wet and dry (similar to Vietnam). The central region is mountainous, while the rest of the country consists mainly of plains. The most comfortable period for pilgrimage is from June to October. Heavy rainfall usually occurs from October to January.
Sri Lankan Buddhists, both men and women, often wear white attire when visiting temples and sacred sites, typically a white shirt on top and a sarong (a long cloth wrapped around the waist and legs).
9.2. ETIQUETTE AND COMMUNICATION
When entering temples, shrines, or monasteries, pilgrims should remove footwear (leave shoes and sandals outside), take off hats, and close umbrellas. Clothing should be modest and respectful. Avoid tight-fitting clothes or exposing legs, arms, shoulders, or the body.
One should not smell flowers before offering them to the Buddha. When extinguishing candles, use a hand fan or another object, rather than blowing them out with the mouth.
When meeting monks, join the palms respectfully and bow slightly while greeting with “Āyubowan” (a wish for long life). Devout Sri Lankan Buddhists sometimes bow and touch the monk’s feet, then bring the hand to the forehead as a gesture of deep reverence towards the monks, the spiritual heirs of the Tathāgata.
Common Expressions:
Āyubowan: greeting, wishing long life
Bohoma Stuti: thank you
Monks often carry a ceremonial fan, traditionally used to shield eye contact, especially between monastics and laypeople. Today, the fan is also considered a ritual implement used by monks in Buddhist Sri Lanka.
9.3. TRANSPORTATION
With modern transportation such as airplanes, trains, buses, taxis, and other vehicles, pilgrimage and travel have become convenient and widespread. In Sinhala, a spiritual pilgrimage is called “vandana gamana” (a journey of worship) or “pin gamana” (a journey of merit).
9.4. CUISINE
Sri Lanka is a Theravāda Buddhist country, and most monks and laypeople consume non-vegetarian food. The staple diet is rice, and meals are often eaten by hand rather than with utensils. Common dishes resemble Indian cuisine, such as curry, roti, dal, chapati, white rice, and fried rice.
Restaurants commonly offer buffet-style meals with a wide variety of well-known Asian and Western dishes, making food relatively easy to find.
Many traditional rural restaurants are set among trees, with kitchens styled like village homes and decorated with clay pots and earthenware. These surroundings create a warm, rustic atmosphere, encouraging pilgrims to linger longer, engaging in practice, exploring history and archaeology, enjoying nature, and experiencing Sri Lanka’s traditional arts and culture.
Sri Lanka is famous for its tea, coffee, rice, coconuts, and seafood.
9.5. MONASTERY ACCOMMODATIONS
Many monasteries and meditation centers in Sri Lanka provide lodging and meals for pilgrims, often at lower cost than hotels
or based on voluntary donations.210. However, only a limited number of monks speak English, as most communicate in Sinhala (also known as Sinhalese, Singalese, or Cingalese).
Therefore, foreign visitors often choose to stay in hotels, dine at restaurants, or travel in organized tours with guides who speak their native language.
9.6. ENTRANCE FEES FOR SACRED AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
Many major sacred sites have been the focus of extensive and costly archaeological projects carried out by the government of Sri Lanka in cooperation with UNESCO. Due to the high expenses involved in initiating, restoring, and maintaining these sites, visitors are required to purchase entrance tickets.
Typically, the entrance fee for foreign visitors (non-citizens) is
$40. This ticket is usually valid for six days, with an overall usage period of two weeks from the date of purchase.
For privately managed heritage sites, the entrance fee for foreign visitors is around $20.
For local residents, fees are much lower and often only symbolic. Prices may vary depending on the site and the managing authority.
For details, please refer to the Central Cultural Fund website at https://ccf.gov.lk/.
- Bhikkhu Nyanatusita, Buddhist Forest Monasteries and Meditation Centres in Sri Lanka: A Guide for Foreign Buddhist Monastics and Lay Practitioners (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2018), http://www.bps.lk/olib/mi/mi008. pdf
9.7. PUBLIC HOLIDAYS AND RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Sri Lanka is an island nation with a long Buddhist history and a rich, distinctive culture. Each year, the country observes around thirty public holidays, a number higher than that of many other countries. There are six major traditional festivals, along with many other religious and cultural observances, including the following:211.
9.7.1. Duruthu Pera – Full Moon Festival of January
The Duruthu Pera Festival is held annually at Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra, prior to the full moon of January. It commemorates the first visit of the Buddha Gautama to Sri Lanka.
9.7.2. Vesak – The Buddha’s Birthday
Vesak, celebrating the birth of Prince Siddhārtha, who later attained enlightenment and became the Buddha, is usually observed on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month. This is the most important religious festival in Sri Lanka.
9.7.3. Poson – Full Moon Festival of July
The Poson Festival is held on the full moon day of the seventh lunar month. Poson is the second most important Buddhist festival after Vesak, commemorating the introduction of Buddhism from India to Sri Lanka in the third century BCE by Arahant Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka.212.
Arahant Mahinda met King Devanampiyatissa at Mihintale, a mountain near the ancient capital of Anurādhapura, and
- The current official website of Sri Lanka Tourism is https://www.srilanka. travel/
They have a dedicated page for public holidays here: https://www.srilanka. travel/srilankan-public-holidays
212. “Poson Full Moon Poya,” Office Holidays.
delivered the first Buddhist sermon in Sri Lanka. For this reason, Mihintale is often referred to as “the cradle of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.”
During Poson, thousands of devotees dressed in traditional white attire undertake pilgrimages to venerate the Sacred Bodhi tree in Anurādhapura and climb Mihintale to the site of the first sermon. On this day, Buddhist monasteries are crowded with devotees and pilgrims, filled with deep faith and devotion.
9.7.4. Kandy Esālā Perahera (Festival of the Sacred Tooth Relic)
The Festival of the Sacred Tooth Relic is held in July and August in Kandy, Sri Lanka.213. The Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha is enshrined at the Sri Dalada Maligawa (Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic) in Kandy. Every year, the relic is ceremonially paraded in a grand procession featuring hundreds of magnificently adorned elephants and more than 1,000 drummers, dancers, and musicians performing along the streets to pay homage to the Buddha’s Sacred Tooth Relic, one of the most revered national treasures of the island of Ceylon.
Festival of the Sacred Tooth Relic.214.
- “The Festival of the Sacred Tooth Relic,” Paradise Island Safari; AFAR.
214. S B, Esala Perahera Procession, Wikimedia Commons.
The torch-lit procession lasts for ten–fifteen days each year. It is one of the most famous festivals in Asia and is often regarded as the largest Buddhist festival in the world. The veneration of the Buddha’s Tooth Relic holds profound significance, as it symbolizes the introduction of Buddhism to this small island nation more than 2,600 years ago.
The Sri Dalada Maligawa (Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic) in Kandy organizes the annual Tooth Relic Festival. The temple usually announces the official dates a few months in advance— often between April and June. Visitors are strongly advised to check the temple’s official website for the latest schedule and information before planning their visit.
9.7.5. Mahiyangana Perahera Festival
Mahiyanganaya is a town located near the Mahāweli River in Badulla District, Uva Province, Sri Lanka. Tradition holds that the Buddha Gautama visited Mahiyanganaya on the Duruthu Full Moon Day to resolve a conflict between the Yakkhas and the Nāgas. This was the Buddha’s first visit to Sri Lanka. Afterward, the Buddha taught the Dhamma to Sumana Saman, the local chieftain, and bestowed upon him a lock of his hair so that the villagers might venerate it.
Sumana Saman, later revered as the deity Sri Sumana Saman, subsequently constructed a golden stūpa to enshrine the sacred hair relic. Over time, the stūpa was renovated and rebuilt several times, with the final structure attributed to King Dutugemunu. For this reason, the historic town is considered a highly sacred site for Buddhists.215.
- “Mahiyangana,” Wikipedia.
The Mahiyangana Perahera Festival.216.
The Mahiyangana Perahera Festival is usually held at the Mahiyanganaya Stūpa from September 10 to 25, commemorating the historical event of the Buddha’s Hair Relic and honoring the deity Sri Sumana Saman.
9.8. WELL-KNOWN MEDITATION CENTERS IN SRI LANKA
9.8.1. Kanduboda Siyane International Insight Meditation
Center (near Delgoda)
The Kanduboda Siyane International Insight Meditation Center has accommodations for seventy foreign meditators, as well as separate facilities for local practitioners. It is a very suitable and convenient place for pilgrims who wish to combine pilgrimage with meditation practice.
Kanduboda Siyane International Insight Meditation Center
Most Venerable Kahatapitye Sumathipala Maha Nayaka Thero Mawatha Pugoda Road, Kanduboda, Delgoda, Sri Lanka
- Roshan Kumara, Mahiyangana Perahera, Pexels.
Tel: +94 11 240 2306; +94 11 493 1808; +94 11 240 3510
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Website: www.kandubodavipassana.lk
9.8.2. Dhamma Kūta Vipassanā Meditation Centre
The Dhammakūta Vipassanā Meditation Centre offers regular courses conducted monthly in the tradition of the late meditation master, S. N. Goenka of India.217. The centre provides free accommodation and meals for meditators. There are convenient bus services from Kandy, making transportation relatively easy.
Dhamma Kūta Vipassanā Meditation Centre
Mahakanda, Hindagala, Sri Lanka Tel: +94 81 238-5774
WhatsApp: +94 71 046 7298 (Messages only) Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Registration: Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Children’s Courses: Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
9.8.3. Pāramitā International Buddhist Centre
Located near Kandy, the Pāramitā International Buddhist Centre offers guest accommodations in a quiet hillside garden setting.218. The centre has a large library and a publication room distributing many valuable books on vipassanā meditation and Buddhism.
217. Dhammakūta Vipassana Meditation Centre, as taught by S. N. Goenka, course schedule page, Dhamma.org, accessed April 5, 2026, https://www. dhamma.org/en-US/schedules/schdhara
218. Pāramitā International Buddhist Centre. https://paramitaibc.org/contact-us/
From Bandaranaike International Airport, visitors may go to the Sri Lanka Tourism Information Centre and inquire about expressway bus services heading towards Colombo. These express buses operate on fixed schedules until 9:00 p.m. daily. If available, they can be used to reach Colombo Fort Railway Station and the Colombo Fort Bus Terminal, both located close to each other. Alternatively, from the airport one may travel to Averiwatte Bus Station, one-third mile away (a fifteen-minute walk), where buses depart every fifteen minutes.
Paramita International Buddhist Centre
No. 7, Kandy Road, Kadugannawa, Kandy, Sri Lanka Phone: +94 77 448 1980; +94 81 257-0732
WhatsApp: +94 70 403 4007
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Website: https://www.paramita.lk
9.8.4. Nilambe Buddhist Meditation Centre
The Nilambe Buddhist Meditation Centre is situated atop a mountain in an exceptionally peaceful and scenic location, overlooking villages and towns below.219.
The centre can be reached by taxi or bus from Kandy. If traveling from Katunayake by bus, get off at the Peradeniya– Galaha junction and take a Delthota bus to the Office Junction. From Kandy, one may take a Delthota bus from the Good Shed Bus Station and get off at the Office Junction, eleven miles from Kandy; the journey may take around 1.5 hours. From there, it is a forty-five minute uphill walk (or taxi/three-wheeler ride) through tea plantations to reach the centre.
- Nilambe Buddhist Meditation Centre website: https://www.nilambe.lk/
Visitors are requested to arrive between 1:00 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. It may take two hours to reach the centre from the Peradeniya– Galaha junction if traveling by bus and walking from the Office Junction.
Nilambe Buddhist Meditation Centre
Nilambe, Sri Lanka
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Tel/WhatsApp: +94 77 780 4555 Website: https://nilambe.lk
9.8.5. Sumantipala Nahimi Senasun Arana Meditation
Centre
Established in 2003 in Kanduboda near Delgoda, the Sumantipala Nahimi Senasun Arana Meditation Centre was founded by Venerable Gampaha Pemasiri Mahāthera, the chief disciple of the late Venerable Kahatapitiya Sumathipala, one of Sri Lanka’s foremost meditation masters.220.
The meditation monastery is located in a serene and beautiful forest environment. It features a white stūpa adorned with reliefs made from various materials; inside are enshrined images of the Buddha and sacred relics. In the courtyard stands a Bodhi tree grown from a cutting of the oldest sacred Bodhi tree in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura.
The centre has many individual meditation huts and residential facilities accommodating seventy meditators. The resident abbot is able to give meditation instruction in English.
- The Sumantipala Nahimi Senasun Arana Meditation Centre (also known as Sumathipala Meditation Centre), Kanduboda, Sri Lanka, https:// placestomeditate.wordpress.com/2018/04/23/sumathipala-meditation-centre- kanduboda/
Sumantipala Nahimi Senasun Arana Meditation Centre
Heelbathgoda Road
Kanduboda, Delgoda 11700, Sri Lanka Tel: (+94) 112 402 805
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Website: https://www.sumathiarana.com
9.9. LIBRARIES
Sri Lanka has a rich tradition of Buddhist scholarship, and both Colombo and Kandy (along with nearby areas) are home to several libraries containing notable collections of Buddhist scriptures, literature, palm-leaf (ola) manuscripts, Pali texts, and related materials. Most of these libraries welcome visitors to enter, study, and read materials on site, though borrowing books is generally restricted to registered members (with access rules varying by institution).
9.9.1. Royal Asiatic Society Library
Established in 1845, the Royal Asiatic Society Library holds nearly 11,000 volumes, including rare books and 117 journal titles. The library also possesses an exceptionally valuable collection dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The library is open Sunday to Thursday, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. and is closed on Friday, Saturday, and public holidays. The library is primarily for the use of the members of the Society. Other readers may be admitted by prior appointment for a limited period of time.
Royal Asiatic Society Library
No. 96, Ananda Coomaraswamy Mawatha Colombo 00700 (Colombo 7), Sri Lanka
Tel.: +94 11 269 9249 (or 011 269 9249)
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: https://www.royalasiaticsociety.lk/library/
9.9.2. Colombo Public Library
The Colombo Public Library, also known as the Museum Library, is one of the earliest libraries in the city. Its founder, Governor Sir William Gregory (1872–1877), played an important role in promoting the Museum Library, which houses many valuable reference works on natural history and Oriental literature, especially useful for academic research.
The library is open daily from 8:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m., except on Wednesdays and public holidays.
Colombo Public Library
15 Sir Marcus Fernando Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka Tel: 011-2691968
Mobile: 0777-514629
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Websites: www.colombo.mc.gov.lk/public-library.php www.colombopubliclibrary.org/
9.9.3. D. S. Senanayake Memorial Public Library
The D. S. Senanayake Memorial Public Library was originally built by local residents of Kandy in 1841 and was taken over by the Kandy Municipal Council in 1920. Located on Ehelepola Kumarihami Mawatha in central Kandy, the library has undergone several renovations and now has over 80,000 members.
It is an excellent library with a rich collection of books, including many valuable works on Buddhism and Sri Lankan history.
D. S. Senanayake Memorial Public Library
Ehelepola Kumarihami Mawatha, Kandy, Sri Lanka Phone: +94 81 222 3716
https://www.attractionsinsrilanka.com/travel-directory/ d-s-senanayake-memorial-public-library/
9.9.4. Buddhist Publication Society
The Buddhist Publication Society maintains a library of Buddhist books and journals in many languages, including German, French, English, Sinhala, and Hindi. Of special note is its complete collection of the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) in both Pāli and English.
The publishing house is located opposite Kandy Lake, around 300 yards from the Temple of the Tooth Relic. Visitors and devotees are warmly welcome to visit and purchase books at a 10 percent discount.
Buddhist Publication Society
P.O. Box 61, 54 Sangharaja Mawatha Kandy, Sri Lanka
Tel: +94 81 2237283
Fax: +94 81 2223679
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: https://www.bps.lk/index.php
9.10. MUSEUMS
9.10.1. Columbo National Museum
The Columbo National Museum was established on January 1, 1877, by the British Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Sir William Henry Gregory. In cooperation with the Royal Asiatic Society (CB) and museum authorities, the institution has worked to display the nation’s cultural and natural heritage and to elevate the museum to international standards.
The museum is open daily from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., except on Fridays and public holidays.
Columbo National Museum
Sir Marcus Fernando Mw., Colombo 07
Tel.: +94 112 694366
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Tel: +94 112 695 366
Website: https://www.museum.gov.lk/v1/museum/colombo
9.10.2. Kandy National Museum
The Kandy National Museum was constructed during the
reign of Sri Vickrama Rajasinha.221. In 1882, it was used as a repository for historical artifacts by the Kandy Art Association and craftsmen from Matale. The museum was opened to the public in 1942.
The museum displays more than 5,000 artifacts, including weapons, jewelry, tools, and other objects from the Kandyan period (seventeenth–nineteenth centuries) and the post-British colonial era. These include a replica of the 1815 agreement by which the Kandyan provinces were ceded to the British. Within the museum grounds stands a statue of Sir Henry Ward, a former Governor of Ceylon (1855–1860).
Located adjacent to the Temple of the Tooth Relic (a two-minute walk), the museum is open Tuesday–Sunday (except public holidays) from 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. daily.
Kandy National Museum Kandy, Sri Lanka Phone: +94 81 222 3867
+94 81 222 3867 (or 081 222 3867)
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: https://www.museum.gov.lk/
9.10.3. Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum
The Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum was established in 1947 through the tireless efforts of the pioneering Sri Lankan archaeologist Dr. Senerath Paranavithana.222. It has since become
221. Department of National Museums, Sri Lanka, “Kandy National Museum,” Department of National Museums, https://www.museum.gov.lk/v1/museum/ kandy (accessed April 4, 2026).
222. “Archaeological Museum – Anuradhapura,” Department of Archaeology Sri Lanka.
one of the oldest and richest museums in Sri Lanka.
The museum houses a wide range of artistic works, from exquisite Buddha images to sculptures of Hindu and ancient indigenous deities, as well as stone, wood, metal, terracotta artifacts, coins, puppets, and other relics from various periods of Sri Lanka’s major kingdoms. It is an essential destination for those wishing to study the rich cultural and historical heritage of the ancient capital, Anurādhapura.
The museum is situated between two major historical landmarks, the Brazen Palace Monastery (Lovamahāpāya) and the Ruvanvelisaya Stūpa, allowing pilgrims to conveniently visit all three sites.
Open hours are from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. daily, except on Tuesdays and public holidays.
Anurādhapura Archaeological Museum Thuparama Dagoba, Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka Phone: +94 25 385 6564
Website: https://archaeology.gov.lk/
9.10.4. Abhayagiri Museum (Abhayagiri Fa-Hsien Museum)
The Abhayagiri Fa-Hsien Museum was established to commemorate the visit of the Chinese pilgrim monk Fa-Hsien to Abhayagiri, Anurādhapura, in the fifth century CE. Fa- Hsien spent two years (412–413 CE) studying at Abhayagiri, translating Buddhist texts that he later brought back to China.223.
Located south of the Abhayagiri Dagoba in the ancient city of Anurādhapura, the museum displays many bronze and ceramic sculptures discovered at the site, as well as particularly beautiful
- “Abhayagiri Museum,” Lonely Planet.
murals.
The museum is open from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. daily, except on Tuesdays and public holidays. A small souvenir bookshop is also available.
9.10.5. Jetavana Museum
The Jetavana Museum is located within the ancient Jetavana Monastic Complex in Anurādhapura, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.224. Built in 1937 during the British colonial period, the building was originally used as a town hall. In 1996, it was converted into the Jetavana Museum.
Artifacts discovered in the Jetavana Monastery complex, dating from the third to the tenth centuries CE, are displayed in this museum.
The museum is open from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. daily, except on Tuesdays and public holidays.
Jetavana Museum
Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka Phone: +94 25 492 6462
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
9.10.6. Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum
The Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum was designed in accordance with the layout of the ancient fortification walls of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa, which flourished between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Each exhibition hall contains ancient artifacts, household items, ritual implements, and religious images from temples and shrines.
- “Jetavana,” Central Cultural Fund Sri Lanka.
The museum is especially noted for its large-scale models of historic fortresses and former capitals, enabling visitors to vividly imagine the golden age and prosperity of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa.
Polonnaruwa Archaeological Museum Sacred City of Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka Phone: +94 27 222 7121
Website: https://ccf.gov.lk/
***
Chapter 10
Conclusion
ri Lanka is an island nation located south of India, a land of temples and stūpas of Theravāda Buddhism and a renowned destination for spiritual pilgrimage, celebrated
for the sacred mystery of some of the world’s oldest Buddhist cultural heritage complexes. Sri Lanka has inherited the finest values of the longest continuous Buddhist history among Buddhist countries, and its Theravāda Buddhist Sangha has existed and flourished uninterruptedly from the introduction of Buddhism in the third century BCE up to the present day.
Sri Lanka proudly possesses numerous unique world heritages recognized by UNESCO, such as the oldest living Bodhi tree, the sacred complexes of the ancient city of Anurādhapura, the Pāli Tipiṭaka written on palm (ola) leaves, the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha, the rock monasteries of Polonnaruwa, the multicolored Lion Rock of Sigiriya, the Golden Cave Temple of Dambulla, the ancient fortified city of Galle, along with many other ancient temples and stūpas acknowledged as World Heritage sites.
Sri Lanka is also renowned for its list of sixteen most sacred Buddhist sites (solosmasthānas), including Abhayagiri Stūpa, Deegavapi Raja Mahā Vihāra, Diva Guhava (Batatotalena
Cave), Jetavanarama Stūpa, Kelaniya Raja Mahā Vihāra, Kiri Vihāra (the White Stūpa), Mahiyangana Raja Mahā Vihāra Stūpa, Mirisawetiya Dagoba, Muthiyangana Raja Mahā Vihāra, Nāga Deepa Purana Vihāra, Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa, Sela Cetiya Stūpa, Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak), the Sri Mahā Bodhi tree, Thuparamaya Stūpa, and Tissamahārama Raja Mahā Vihāra.225.
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương beside the palm-leaf Pāli Tipiṭaka inscription board at Aluvihare Cave Temple,
Matale, central Sri Lanka, July 13, 2023.
Sri Lanka is proud to possess sacred sites that were personally visited by Gautama Buddha during his three visits after enlightenment, as well as those linked to the missionary activities of Arahant Mahindā Thera and the noble nun Bhikkhunī Saṅghamittā Therī in spreading the Dhamma.
The island is also home to monumental and artistically magnificent Buddha statues, ancient ruins, monasteries, temples, and millennia-old Buddhist stūpas that are inseparably connected with the very formation and development of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
- “Solosmasthānas,” Nekhor: Sites of Sri Lanka, https://www.nekhor.org/ sites-of-sri-lanka (accessed April 4, 2026).
Sri Lanka takes pride in its distinctive and richly endowed culture and in its countless historical monuments—true masterpieces of religion, architecture, art, sculpture, and engineering— representing the achievements of ancient Sri Lankan civilization.
Although many of these sacred monuments survive today only as foundations and have been reconstructed or restored, even these fragmentary remains speak powerfully to pilgrims and bear eloquent witness to the extraordinary creative genius and technical mastery of ancient Sinhalese architecture and sculpture. They stand as compelling evidence of an ancient civilization deeply influenced by Indian Buddhist culture.
It is truly awe-inspiring to reflect upon how such sacred monuments were constructed in an age without advanced technology. These enduring legacies have become a wellspring of inspiration for artistic, literary, and sculptural creation, while also contributing to the growth of the economy and the flourishing of pilgrimage tourism.
It is a profound joy and source of inner peace that the Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation from California, USA, was able to pay homage, practice walking meditation, recite the Buddha’s name, chant the scriptures, and make offerings, planting wholesome seeds of merit at this ancient religious and cultural center of Buddhism that has endured for thousands of years.
The Hương Sen Temple Pilgrimage Delegation at the Ruwanweli Mahā Stūpa, Anurādhapura, July 11, 2023.
This is truly a remarkable destination for pilgrims from all over the world, where one may behold and awaken once more the glorious eras of ancient Buddhism.
Homage to the Blessed One,
The Perfectly Enlightened Buddha
Who Bears Supreme Witness to the Truth.
***
Appendix
Report on the Pilgrimage,
Charitable Activities, and Buddhist Conferencesin
South Korea, India, and Sri Lanka
(June 22–July 20, 2023)
By Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương
ime has passed swiftly. The one-month pilgrimage encompassing visits to sacred Buddhist sites, participation in Buddhist conferences, and charitable activities
organized by Hương Sen Temple in three countries: South Korea, India, and Sri Lanka has now come to a close, leaving behind many meaningful and memorable achievements.
With deep reverence, we sincerely express our gratitude to the venerable members of the Sangha and to Buddhist devotees near and far who generously supported the program for sponsoring monastic students studying abroad and for charitable activities in the three countries. A list of benefactors has been published on the website and the Fanpage Hương Sen:
https://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/tin-tuc/tu- thien/8182-tu-thien-nam-2023
Fanpage:
Hương Sen: https://www.facebook.com/huongsentemple
The delegation consisted of more than fifteen members, including Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Abbess of Hương Sen Temple, Sister Trí Minh (younger sister of Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương), Sister Viên Bảo, Sister Viên Đạo, Sister Đức Trí, Sister Viên Nhuận, Sister Viên Giác, Sister Viên Lành, Viên Lệ, Viên Phương, Viên Đào, and Trúc Nghiêm, together with tour guides Lunah Kim (for the South Korea tour), Venerable Bhante Ratna and Mr. Ravi (for the India tour), and Venerable Kahawatte Siri Sumedha and Mr. Lakman Anu (for the Sri Lanka tour). Together, they carried out this profoundly meaningful journey.
- SOUTH KOREA
The eighteenth Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women organized by Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women took place from June 23 to June 30, 2023, in Seoul, South Korea. It was hosted jointly by the Korean Bhikṣuṇī Association and Sakyadhita Korea, with main events held at the COEX Convention Center, alongside activities at Bongeunsa Temple and the Korean Bhikṣuṇī Association Center.
The conference was attended by more than 3,000 delegates from many countries around the world. Notably, at 3:00 p.m. on June 25, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương delivered a workshop presentation titled “Virtues to Help Buddhist Women Face Today’s Precarious World.”
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (center, holding book) presents her writings to attendees following her presentation
at the 18th Sakyadhita International Conference in Seoul, South Korea (June 25, 2023).
After the conference, the delegation visited several renowned Buddhist temples in South Korea such as Woljeongsa, Baekdamsa, and Naksansa—majestic and venerable monastic complexes that represent the grandeur of Korean Buddhism.
- INDIA
At 2:00 p.m. on July 1, 2023, the delegation flew to Delhi, India, and then proceeded to Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, to participate in a Buddhist conference attended by nearly 100 Vietnamese monastic students studying at various universities across India.
The conference, themed “Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision,” featured a presentation by Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương titled “Buddhist Philosophy Has Come to the American Universities.”
The proceedings of this conference were issued in two volumes—one in Vietnamese and the other in English: Phật Giáo: Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử và Thực Hành and Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. These books are the result of twenty-three scholarly presentations and were offered to monks, nuns, graduate researchers, professors, and university libraries. On this occasion, the delegation also offered dāna (alms) to the Sangha and donated books from the Bao Anh Lac Book Series of Hương Sen Temple to the participants.
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (center, holding book) presents her writings to Vietnamese monastic scholars following her presentation at Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, July 1, 2023.
Early in the morning at 6:00 a.m. on July 2, 2023, the delegation flew to Siddhartha United Social Welfare Mission Monastery in Kolkata, West Bengal, to attend the second Buddhist conference in India, held with Indian scholars, writers, and professors.
This conference was co-organized by Venerable Abbot Dr. Buddha Priya Mahāthero and Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương with the theme:“The Great Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace and Social Harmony.”
One of the twenty-four presenters was Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương, who presented a paper titled “The Great Contribution for World Peace and Social Harmony of Emperor Aśoka of India and Emperor Trần Nhân Tông of Vietnam.”
Later that afternoon at 5:00 p.m., Hương Sen Temple conducted a charitable distribution of gifts to underprivileged families living around the Siddhartha United Social Welfare Mission in Kolkata, West Bengal.
From July 3 to July 6, 2023, the delegation undertook pilgrimages to major Buddhist sacred sites, including Lumbinī (the birthplace of Prince Siddhārtha), Kusinārā (the site of the Buddha’s parinibbāna), Vaiśālī (where the Bhikkhunī Sangha was established and where the Buddha spent several rains retreats), the ancient Buddhist University of Nālandā, Rājagaha, and other holy places.
On the evening of July 6, under the witness of Venerable Ratna, the resident monk of Bangladesh Temple (Bodhgayā), Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương together with ten nuns conducted the ordination ceremony, conferring the Ten Precepts (Sāmaṇerī/Sādinī) upon the laywomen Viên Lành, Viên Lệ (aunt of Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương), and Viên Phương (elder sister of Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương), beneath the Sacred Bodhi tree, the place of the Buddha’s enlightenment.
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and Hương Sen Pilgrimage present books to monastics and the charitable gifts
to underprivileged families, Siddhartha United Social Welfare Mission, Kolkata, West Bengal, July 1, 2023.
Ven. Bangladesh, Ven.Ratna, Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương conducted the ordination for ten Vietnamese nuns, beneath the Sacred Bodhi tree,
Bodhagaya, Bihar, India, July 6, 2023.
On the morning of July 7, 2023, the delegation arrived at Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī Temple in Bodhgayā, Bihar, in cooperation with Bhikkhunī Như Phụng (the monastery
steward), to distribute 200 charitable gift packages to poor families, people with disabilities, orphans, and disadvantaged local residents. During this time, Venerable Ratna, together with Sister Viên Nhuận, Bhikkhunī Viên Lệ and Bhikkhunī Viên Phương offered books and financial support to local temples in the Bodhgayā area.
Huong Sen Delegation distributed 200 charitable gifts to the poor families at Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī Temple in Bodhgayā, Bihar, India, July 7, 2023.
On July 8 and 9, 2023, after visiting Deer Park (Isipatana) at Sarnath, Varanasi, and the capital Delhi, the delegation departed India and flew to the Buddhist country of Sri Lanka, an island nation often called the “Pearl of the Indian Ocean,” renowned for preserving the oldest sacred Bodhi tree in the world, the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha, and the Pāli Canon (the Tipiṭaka, written on palm leaves).
- SRI LANKA
On the afternoon of July 10, 2023, the delegation visited Avukana Ancient Rock Temple, home to the tallest standing Buddha statue in Sri Lanka, the Avukana Royal Rock Buddha Statue, as well as Kala Wewa Reservoir (Yodha Ela) and Wijithapara Raja Mahā Vihāra in the Avukana area, where Buddhist scriptures
were respectfully offered.
On the way back to the hotel, the delegation passed a monastery under construction featuring fifty statues of monks on almsround in the four cardinal directions, with a seated meditating Buddha at the center. This architectural motif is quite common in Sri Lankan temple-stūpa design.
On July 11, 2023, the delegation visited and paid homage to the Sri Mahā Bodhi tree in the ancient capital of Anurādhapura, the oldest living Bodhi tree in the world, propagated from the original Bodhi tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. The delegation also visited the Ratnamali Mahā Chetiya (Ruwanweli Mahā Seya), the Anula Silmatha Bhikkhunī Monastery led by a Bhikkhunī Ārāma, the great Abhayagiri Stūpa, Jetavana Stūpa, and the sacred site of Mihintale where Arahant Mahinda, son of Emperor Aśoka, introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka. Mihintale contains sixty-eight rock caves nestled in the hillside, featuring elegant and austere architectural designs used by ancient ascetic monks.
On July 12, 2023, the delegation visited the Dambulla Royal Rock Cave Temple, renowned for its numerous large stone Buddha statues depicting meditation, parinibbāṇa, and standing postures of teaching, as well as exquisitely painted Brahmā figures on the natural cave walls. The delegation then paid homage at the Vatadage (circular relic house) in Madirigiriya, followed by a visit to Girithale National Park, famous for its wildlife, especially elephants and the nearby lake reservoir.
Huong Sen Delegation prayed at the Sri Mahā Bodhi tree, Anurādhapura, and Dambulla Royal Rock Cave Temple,July 12, 2023.
On the morning of July 13, 2023, the delegation joyfully and reverently visited the palm-leaf manuscript Tipiṭaka, enshrined at Aloka Vihāra, Matale. After lunch, the group visited Sri Vijayathilakaramaya Bogahakotuwa Temple in Matale, where the junior brother of Venerable Dr. Sumedha Thero serves as Abbot. The temple currently hosts ten young novice monks in training.
At 2:00 p.m. the same day, Hương Sen Temple organized a charitable outreach program for impoverished local residents at Koombiyangoda Mahā Vihāra Temple, Matale District, Sri Lanka, with the support of Venerable Royal Pandith Talatuoye Samiddhi Siri Mahā Thero, Abbot and Rector of Sri Vidyasekhara Pirivena, and a elder Dhamma brother of Venerable Dr. Sumedha Thero, who guided the delegation.
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and Hương Sen Pilgrimage present books to monastics and the charitable gifts
to poor families, at Koombiyangoda Mahā Vihāra Temple, Matale District, Sri Lanka, July 13, 2023.
In addition to distributing charitable gifts, Hương Sen Temple offered alms to thirty senior monks, forty Buddhist college students, and twenty teaching staff members of the institution.
On the morning of July 14, 2023, the delegation visited and paid homage to the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha at the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic in Kandy.
At 2:00 p.m., the delegation attended an academic Buddhist seminar at the Faculty of Education, University of Peradeniya, Kandy, with the theme: “The Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka.”
There were ten presenters, including Bhikkhunī Thích Nữ Giới Hương, who delivered a presentation titled “Buddhism from Ceylon Island to the United States.”
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương presents her writings to the international professors and scholars,
at the University of Peradeniya, Kandy (July 14) and Mahinda Society, Colombo, Sri Lanka, July 16, 2023.
On July 15, 2023, the delegation visited two monasteries for monks and one monastery for nuns.
The first stop was Truc Lam International Buddhist Meditation Center, founded by Venerable Pháp Quang, a disciple of Venerable Thích Thiện Ý (Thu Duc, Vietnam). Although the Abbot was away, his disciples, Venerable Pháp Bảo and novice monks, warmly welcomed the delegation and prepared a Vietnamese vegetarian meal. After nearly a month of Korean, Indian, and Sri Lankan cuisine, the familiar Vietnamese flavors brought great joy to the group. The meal was so abundant that the delegation was even provided “to-go” portions to enjoy later at the hotel.
After bidding farewell to Truc Lam Monastery in the cool, misty highlands of Kandy, the delegation visited Bodimalu Aramaya Bhikkhunī Monastery, led by Bhikkhunī Uduwala Sudhammika, located in Gampolawatta, Gampola, near the home of Dr. Sumedha Thero’s elder brother. The delegation offered rice, salt, cooking oil, financial support and took commemorative photos with the Abbess and the community of sāmaṇerīs.
The delegation then visited Nigrodha Khetta Pirivena Bhikkhu Training Center in Telembugala, Gelioya under the leadership of Most Venerable Godamunne Pannakitthi Nayaka Mahā Thero, the Sanghanayaka. The final visit of the day was to Gatame Rajopawanarama Temple, Peradeniya district, led by Most Venerable Keppetiyagoda Siriwimala Nayaka Mahā Thero, home to seventy monks and novices, to whom the delegation offered sweets and financial support.
On July 16, 2023, at 2:00 p.m., the delegation arrived in Colombo to attend an academic seminar at Mahā Mahinda International Dhammadutha Society, led by Most Venerable Professor Medagama Nandawansa Thero. About 100 professors, scholars, graduate students, and monastic students from Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand participated.
The seminar theme was “Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Nineteenth–Twenty-First Centuries.”
Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương was one of twelve presenters and delivered a paper titled “Contributions of Sri Lankan Buddhist Writers.”
As the monastery cares for seventy novice monks, the delegation prepared sweets and financial offerings as a gesture of support.
From July 17 to July 20, the final three days of the pilgrimage were devoted to visiting and offering support to eight bhikkhunī monasteries in Colombo and surrounding areas, including the following:
Newgala Meditation Center Monastery; Sasanaloka Bhikkhunī Āśrama and Sri Saṅghamittā Dhamma School (Galigamuwa, Kegalle); Sri Sunandā Temple (Alpitiya, Gāḷupitamada); Khemārāmaya Temple (Indiparape, Mīrigama); Vishākārāmaya Temple (Galgamuwa, Veyangoda); Pradīpaloka Temple; Uppalavaṇṇārāmaya Temple; Sakyadhitā Training and Meditation Center (Gorakana, Panadura); and Sri Lanka’s first Bhikkhunī Training Centre and International Faculty of Buddhist Studies (BTC and IFBS) in Kananvila, Horana.
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương offered gifts to nuns at Newgala Meditation Center Monastery, BTC and IFBS in Kananvila, Horana, July 19-20 2023.
In summary, the one-month pilgrimage through South Korea, India, and Sri Lanka concluded with a rich tapestry of profound emotions and lasting spiritual impressions. Images of meditation and chanting at sacred sites will remain deeply imprinted in the hearts of all participants. The ordination ceremony beneath the Sacred Bodhi tree at the very place of the Buddha’s Enlightenment was an especially sacred and indescribable experience.
The academic exchanges with monastics and scholars from
around the world were crystallized into commemorative conference proceedings. The charitable activities—sharing food and financial support with the underprivileged—embodied the compassionate spirit of “the fortunate supporting the less fortunate.”
Once again, we sincerely express our deep gratitude to the Venerable Sangha and lay supporters near and far who generously supported the Monastic Scholarship Sponsorship and International Charity Program 2023 organized by Hương Sen Temple. Heartfelt appreciation is also extended to all members of the pilgrimage delegation and to all organizations and individuals—directly or indirectly—who contributed to the successful completion of this meaningful journey.
May the boundless blessings of the Triple Gem protect all venerable monastics, devoted lay followers, and all sentient beings, so that they may dwell in peace and happiness within the Noble Path of the Tathāgata.
Namo Puññavanā Bodhisattva Mahāsattva Supreme Witness and Great Confirmer of Merit.
References
- Benz, Ernst. The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka. Vietnamese trans. Thích Trí Chơn. https://thuvienhoasen.org/a14635/su-phuc-hung-phat-giao- tai-tich-lan-nguyen-tac-duc-ngu-ernst-benz-chuyen-ngu-h- t-thich-tri-chon
• Bond, George D. The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka. University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
• Boyle, Emma. The Essence Guide to Custom & Culture: Sri Lanka. 2016.
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• Holt, John Clifford. “Esala Perahera: Powers of the Buddha Relic in Sri Lanka.” In Theravāda Traditions: Buddhist Ritual Cultures in Contemporary Southwest Asia and Sri Lanka. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2017.
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• Minh, Bhikkhu. Daily Pāli Chanting: Pāli–Vietnamese. Religious Publishing House, B.E. 2556.
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• Narada, Venerable, G. P. Malalasekara, and K. Wimalajothi. Buddhism, Culture & Sri Lanka: A Pilgrim’s Guide. Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2012–2014.
• Nicholas, C. W. Historical Topography of Ancient and Medieval Ceylon. Colombo, 1963.
• Palliyaguru, Chandrasiri. Ceremonies, Festivals and Rituals of the Sinhalese. Sarasavi Publishers, 2019–2022.
• Pemaloka, K. Sri. The Ancient Mahā Vihāra Tradition and Malwatu–Asgiri Vihāras. 2008.
• Perera, H. R. Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History. 2007. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/ wheel100.html#sect-47
• Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. Foreign Notices of South India. Madras, 1939.
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• Spencer, Jonathan, ed. The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press, 2011.
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• Stoddard,RobertH.“CharacteristicsofBuddhistPilgrimages in Sri Lanka.” University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 1988. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1032&context=geographyfacpub
• Suvira, Bhikkhunī. Walking in the Sunshine of the Bhikkhunis. Buddhist Cultural
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Publishing House. https://quangduc.com/a27899/phat-giao- trung-aCentre, 2021.
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• Wasālā, Rohana R. Some Traditional Festivals of Sri Lanka. S. Godage & Brothers, 2013.
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• Anton 17. Nillaveli Beach. Wikimedia Commons.
• AntonO. Kudumbigala Sanctuary. Wikimedia Commons.
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• wsThushansenevirathna. Elephants Udawalawe National Park. Wikimedia Commons.Vietnamese (as of February 2026).
- ***
BAO ANH LAC BOOKSHELF
Revised by Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương
Books and scriptures can be purchased on Amazon or downloaded digitally at: www.huongsentemple.com/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac
1.1. The Vietnamese Books
1. Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa (Bodhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions)
2. Ban Mai Xứ Ấn - Nhật Ký Mười năm Tu học trên đất Phật (1995-2005) (The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)
3. Sārnātha - Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi Phật Giáo (Sārnātha -
Deer Park–the Cradle of Buddhism)
4. Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới (Take Refuge in Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts)
5. Vòng Luân Hồi (The Cycle of Life)
6. Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee (Snowflake in Milwaukee)
7. Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm (Rebirth in Śūrangama Sūtra)
8. Nghi Thức Hộ Niệm, Cầu Siêu (The Ritual for the Deceased)
9. Quan Âm Quảng Trần (The Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva)
- Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ (A Nun and American Inmates)
11. Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV (The Awakened Mind of the 14th Dalai Lama)
12. A-Hàm: Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não (Agama – A Dharma Rain Transforms the Defilement), 2 tập
13. Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris (Collection of Sunlight in Perris).
14. Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang (Key Words of Vajracchedikā- Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra)
15. Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm (Songs and Poems of Śūraṅgama Sunlight)
16. Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa (Reflections at the Temple Window)
17. Máy Nghe MP3 Hương Sen (Hương Sen Digital Mp3 Radio Speaker): Các Bài Giảng, Sách, Bài viết và Thơ Nhạc của Thích Nữ Giới Hương (383/201 bài); Lectures, Books, Articles and Poems by Ven. Gioi Huong (383/201 songs)
18. DVD Giới Thiệu về Chùa Hương Sen, USA (Introduction to Huong Sen Temple)
19. Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ (Sharing the Dharma - Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States)
20. Tuyển Tập 40 Năm Tu Học & Hoằng Pháp của Ni sư Giới Hương (Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương), Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận, TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông
21. Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở (Songs and Poems of Lotus Blooming on the Way)
22. Nghi Thức Công Phu Khuya – Thần Chú Thủ Lăng Nghiêm
(Śūraṅgama Mantra)
23. Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Phổ Môn (The Universal Door Sūtra)
24. Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Dược Sư (The Medicine Buddha Sūtra)
- Nghi Thức Sám Hối Hồng Danh (Ritual of Repentance and Invocation of Sacred Names)
26. Nghi Thức Công Phu Chiều – Mông Sơn Thí Thực (The Evening Chanting Ritual – Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts)
27. Khóa Tịnh Độ – Kinh A Di Đà (The Amitabha Buddha Sūtra).
28. Nghi Thức Cúng Linh và Cầu Siêu (Ritual of Offering to the Spirits and Praying for the Deceased)
29. Nghi Lễ Hàng Ngày - 50 Kinh Tụng và các Lễ Vía trong Năm (Daily Chanting Rituals and Annual Ceremonies)
30. Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022, The Path of Life 2022 (Collection of Sixty Essays from the 2022 Applied Buddhist Philosophy Writing Contest)
31. Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 (Collection of Winning Entries from the 2022 Applied Buddhist Essay Writing Contest)
32. Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn (Giới Hương – The Virtue Fragrance Against the Thousand Winds), Nguyên Hà
33. Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (Dharma Teachings of the Avatamsaka Sutra (Buddhaavatamsaka-nāma mahāvaipulya- sūtra) (2 volumes)
34. Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (The Essence of the Avatamsaka Sutra)
35. Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành (Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision). Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương
36. Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ (Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta)
37. Nghi cúng Giao Thừa (New Year’s Eve Ceremony)
- Nghi cúng Rằm Tháng Giêng (The Ceremony of the First Month’s Full Moon)
39. Nghi thức Lễ Phật Đản (The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony)
40. Nghi thức Vu Lan (The Ullambana Festival or Parent Day)
41. Lễ Vía Quan Âm (The Avolokiteshvara Day)
42. Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di (The Death Anniversary of Mahapajapati Gotami)
43. Nghi thức cúng Tổ và Giác linh Sư trưởng (The Ancestor Day)
44. Nghi Lễ Chẩn Tế Mười Hai Loại Cô Hồn (Offering Food to the Twelve Ghosts)
45. Kỷ Yếu Lễ Tưởng Niệm Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di tại Chùa Hương Sen năm 2024 (The Yearbook of the Commemoration of Mahapajapati Gotami at Huong Sen Temple in 2024)
46. Nghi Thức Cầu Siêu Chư Hương Linh Thai Nhi (Prayer for the Souls of Unborn Babies (Miscarriage, Abortion, Termination, Stillbirth)
47. Kim Quang Minh Kinh Sám Trai Thiên Khóa Nghi (The Golden Light Sutra - Heavenly Course)
48. Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka (Buddhism and Holy Buddhist Places in Sri Lanka)
49. Đấu Tranh Bất Bạo Động Là Nền Tảng Xây Dựng Hòa Bình Toàn Cầu (Nonviolent Struggle - the Foundation for Building Global Peace)
50. Vũ Trụ Luận dưới lăng kính Khoa học và Phật Giáo
(Cosmology under the Lens of Science and Buddhism)
51. COVID-19: Vai trò Phật Giáo trong Việc Chữa Lành
(COVID-19: The Role of Buddhism in Healing)
52. Đại Dịch Coronavirus trong Thế Kỷ XXI (Coronavirus Pandemic in the Twenty-First Century)
53. Đóng góp của Phật Giáo cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và Hòa Hợp Xã Hội (Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace & Social Harmony).
- Phật Giáo Toàn Cầu - Đặc Biệt Liên Kết Với Sri Lanka (Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka)
55. Phật Giáo Sri Lanka từ Thế Kỷ 19-21 (Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of 19th to Twenty-First Centuries)
56. Ngày Nhà Giáo Việt Nam 20/11 – Tri Ân Người Khai Trí (Vietnamese Teachers’ Day November 20 - Gratitude to the Master Guiding the knowledge)
57. Lịch Sử Giáo Dục Phật Giáo ở Sri Lanka: Sự Phục Hồi của Ni Đoàn Tỳ-kheo-ni (History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of The Bhikkhuni Sangha)
58. Sự Tiến Hóa của Vũ Trụ, Con Người và Nghiệp Báo (The Evolution of the Universe, Humans and Karma)
59. Vũ Trụ Luận dưới lăng kính Khoa Học và Phật Giáo
(Cosmology through the Lens of Science and Buddhism).
60. Phật giáo Nga thế kỷ XXI – Cánh cửa Tâm linh (Russian Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century – The Door to Spirituality)
61. Phật Giáo Châu Phi Thế Kỷ XXI (Buddhism in Africa in the Twenty-First Century)
62. Phương Pháp Chữa Lành Bằng Tuệ Giác Kinh Đại Bảo Tích (Healing Methods through the Wisdom of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra)
63. Trí Tuệ Cổ Xưa và Bài Học Ứng Dụng Hiện Đại qua Kinh Hiền Ngu (Ancient Wisdom and Modern Practical Lessons through the Wise-Foolish Sūtra)
64. Triết lý Phật Giáo và Bài học Thực tiễn qua tác phẩm “Thoát Vòng Tục Lụy” (Buddhist Philosophy and Practical Lessons found in “Transcending the Worldly Attachments”)
65. Tíchtruyện Kinh Pháp Cúvà Ứng Dụng (2 tập) (Dhammapada Stories and Practical Applications)
- Khóa lễ Ngũ Bách Danh (Hundred Names of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Ceremony)
67. Nghi Tụng Kinh Di Giáo (Reciting the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching Sutra)
68. Nghi Tụng Sám Sám Hối Sáu Căn (Reciting the Repentance of the Six Senses)
69. Nghi Tụng Quy Sơn Cảnh Sách (Reciting Master Guishan’s Admonitions)
70. Nghi Thức Lễ Xuống Tóc Xuất Gia (The Tonsure and Ordination Ceremony)
71. Nghi Thức Truyền Sa-di-ni Giới (The Ritual for Conferring the Śrāmaṇerikā)
72. Nghi Thức Truyền Giới Thức-xoa-ma-na (The Ritual for Conferring the Śikṣamāṇā (Probationary Nun) Precepts)
73. Nghi Thức Truyền Năm Giới, Mười Giới và Bồ Tát Giới Tại Gia (The Transmitting Ceremony of Lay Precepts (The Five, Ten and Lay Bodhisattva Precepts)
74. Nghi Thức Truyền Bồ Tát Giới Xuất Gia (The Ritual for Conferring the Monastic Bodhisattva Precepts)
75. Phật Giáo Bhutan Thế kỷ XXI (Bhutan Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century)
1.2. The English Books
1. Bodhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions
2. Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
3. Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva
4. The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra
5. Sārnātha the Cradle of Buddhism (From an Archeological
Perspective)
6. Take Refuge in the Three Gems and keep the Five Precepts
7. Cycle of Life
8. Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service— Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương
9. Sharing the Dharma-Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States
10. A Buddhist Nun and American Inmates
11. Daily Monastic Chanting
12. Weekly Buddhist Discourse Chanting
13. Practice Meditation and Pure Land
14. The Ceremony for Peace
15. The Lunch Offering Ritual
16. The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts
17. The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra
18. The Medicine Buddha Sutra
19. The New Year Ceremony
20. The Great Parinirvana Ceremony
21. The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony
22. The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day)
23. The Marriage Ceremony
24. The Blessing Ceremony for the Deceased
25. The Ceremony Praising Ancestral Masters
26. The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony
27. The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts)
28. Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. Edited by Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
- Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace & Social Harmony. Edited by Ven. Dr. Buddha Priya MahaThero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
30. Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy University. Edited by Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Thero and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
31. Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Period of Nineteen to Twenty-First Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Colombo. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
32. Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta
33. Prayer for the Souls of Unborn Babies.
34. Nonviolent Struggle - the Foundation for Building Global Peace
35. History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha
36. The Essential Teachings of Avataṃsaka Sūtra
37. Russian Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century – The Door to Spirituality
38. Buddhism in Africa in the Twenty-First Century
39. Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka.
40. COVID 19 - The Role of Buddhism to Heal
41. The Coronavirus Pandemic in the Twenty-First Century
42. Healing Methods through the Wisdom of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra
43. Ancient Wisdom and Modern Practical Lessons through the Wise-Foolish Sūtra
44. Buddhist Philosophy and Practical Lessons found in “Transcending the Worldly Attachments”
- Dhammapada Stories and Practical Applications (2 volumes)
46. The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)
47. ĀGAMAS-The Dharma Rain Transforming Afflictions, 2 volumes
48. The Five Hundred Names of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Ceremony
49. The Evolution of the Universe, Humanity, and Karma
50. The Cosmology through the Lens of Science and Buddhism
51. The Transmitting Ceremony of Lay Precepts (The Five, Ten and Lay Bodhisattva Precepts)
52. Bhutan Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century
1.3. The Bilingual Books (Vietnamese-English)
1. Bản Tin Hương Sen: Xuân, Phật Đản, Vu Lan (Hương Sen Newsletter: Spring, Buddha Birthday and Vu Lan, annual/ Mỗi Năm)
2. Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách - Good Words Nurture a Good Manner
3. Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản - Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan
4. Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ - Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream
5. Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương - Words of Love and Understanding
6. Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái - The Ancient and Modern Culture through Pilgrimage and Worship
7. Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống - Art of Living
8. Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India
9. The Great Contribution to World Peace and Social Harmony
of Emperor Ashoka and Emperor Trần Nhân Tông - Sự Đóng Góp cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và An toàn Xã Hội của Hoàng Đế A-Dục và Vua Trần Nhân Tông
1.4. Translated Books
1. Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật (Relics of the Buddha), Tham Weng Yew
2. Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù (Lotus in Prison), many authors.
3. Chùa Việt Nam Hải Ngoại (Overseas Vietnamese Buddhist Temples)
4. Việt Nam Danh Lam Cổ Tự (The Famous Ancient Buddhist Temples in Vietnam)
5. Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc – (Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music)
6. Phật Giáo - Một Bậc Đạo Sư, Nhiều Truyền Thống (Buddhism: One Teacher – Many Traditions), Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma 14th & Ni Sư Thubten Chodren
7. Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết - Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective)
- Buddhist Music Albums From Poems of Thích Nữ Giới Hương
1. Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh (The Buddha’s Teachings Reflected in Cherry Flowers)
2. Niềm Tin Tam Bảo (Trust in the Three Gems)
3. Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai (The Thousand-Year Full Moon Awaits)
4. Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp (Moonlight of Dharma-Buddha)
5. Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Awakened Mind at the Dawn) (Piano Variations for Meditation)
- Tiếng Hát Già Lam (Song from the Temple)
7. Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa (The Magnificent, Ancient Buddhist Temple)
8. Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở (An Udumbara Flower Is Blooming)
9. Hương Sen Ca (Hương Sen’s Songs)
10. Về Chùa Vui Tu (Happily Go to Temple for Spiritual Practices)
11. Gọi Nắng Xuân Về (Call the Spring Sunlight)
12. Đệ Tử Phật (Buddhist Disciples)
13. Hoa Phước Đức (Flower of Merit)
14. Vu Lan Báo Hiếu (Filial Piety in the Vu Lan Season)
15. Nương Bóng Từ Quang (Refuge in the Buddha)
Please visit: http://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/kinh- sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac
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About the Author
orn in 1963 in Bình Thuận, Vietnam, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương entered the monastic life at the age of fifteen under the tutelage of the renowned Master, the Most Venerable Bhikkhunī Hải Triều Âm. Her academic journey began with a Bachelor’s Degree in Literature from Sài Gòn University in 1994, followed by fifteen years of intensive study in India, culminating in a Ph.D. in Buddhist Philosophy from the
University of Delhi in 2003.
Since relocating to the United States in 2005, she earned a second Bachelor’s in Literature from the University of California, Riverside (2015). Today, she shares her expertise as a lecturer at the Vietnam Buddhist University in Ho Chi Minh City and various Buddhist centers across the United States.
Finding inspiration in the profound silence of Dharma contemplation, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương is a prolific author, translator, and lyricist. Under her Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf, she
has published an impressive collection of 134 titles in both English and Vietnamese as of April 2026.1.
In April 2010, she founded the Hương Sen Temple in Perris, California, where she currently serves as Abbess. This ten-acre sanctuary, nestled in the semi-desert of southern California, was officially incorporated as a 501(c)(3) religious nonprofit in June 2011. Today, the temple is home to the Abbess, six resident Bhikṣuṇī disciples, and their three canine companions: Rosie, Bruno, and Rudy.
1.. https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac
PLEASE READ THE WHOLE BOOK Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri Lanka with colorful photos: 118-Buddhism_and_Sacred_Sites_of_Sri_Lanka-Inside.pdf
