Home Page by K2 Home Page by JSN PageBuilder

Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf

Details
Category: Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf

 

129. Cover The Dawn In India

The Dawn In India

 


A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf 129

 HE

DAWN

IN INDIA -

A TEN-YEAR DIARY OF BUDDHIST DISCOVERY (1995–2005)

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

HƯƠNG SEN publishingng Sen Buddhist Temple

19865 Seaton Avenue, Perris, CA 92570, USA Tel: (951) 657-7272, Cell: (951) 616-8620

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. https://www.facebook.com/Huong.Sen.Riverside/ Web: www.huongsentemple.com

First English Edition 2026 by Huong Sen Buddhist Temple in the United States.

In the ancient, Master Xuanzang sought the Truth divine,

Now Vietnamese monastics follow the sacred sign.

From East and West, all journey to the Buddha’s home,

To greet the Dawn in India, where brilliant lights shine.

 

oOo

Xưa kia tìm ánh Đạo mầu,

Đường Tam Tạng bước dãi dầu tuyết sương.

Nay Tăng Ni Việt chung đường,

Noi theo thánh tích muôn phương hội về.

Đông Tây chung một bồ-đề, Bình minh đất Ấn tràn trề quang huy.

 

CONTENTS

Preface to the English Version                                                  11

Introduction                                                                                13

Preface                                                                                        16

VOLUME I

Chapter 1: Come to the Land of India                                 23

Chapter 2: Department of Buddhist studies in

Delhi University                                                                        40

  • Overview of the Master of Arts (M.A.)

in Buddhist Studies                                                           40

Chapter 3: Pilgrimage to the Holy Sites                               71

in the Mahabodhi Temple Complex                                95

Chapter 4: Academic and Spiritual Life

of Vietnamese Monastics                                                      208

4.1. Academic Pursuits at the University of Delhi              208

Chapter 5: The Magnificent Landscapes

and Landmarks of India                                                       253

5.1. Manali                                                                             253

2.2. Taj Mahal – Agra                                                            256

3.3. Shimla: the Summer Capital                                          259

VOLUME II

Chapter 6: Buddhist Legacy

and International Connections                                            279

in Bodh Gaya, India                                                       280

  • Ten Days of Dharma Teachings

by His Holiness the Dalai Lama in Bodh Gaya           287

of the Millennium Year 2000 in Sārnāth (Deer Park) 292 6..4. Challenges in Inter-Religious Partnerships                                                                              295

  • The Sixth SakyadhitaInternational Conference

in Nepal                                                                           299

of the Buddha’s Enlightenment                                     337

  • Celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment

and Symposium in Bodh Gaya                                      341

  • The Seventh Sakyadhita International Conference

in Taiwan                                                                        344

VOLUME III

Chapter 7: Sacred Lineages - The Evolution of the Bhiksuni Sangha and International

Buddhist Movements                                                            351

  • Peace of Mind and Body

from The Buddha’s Enlightenment                               353

  • Kieu-Dam-Di Vietnamese Nunnery in Vaishali, India 355

6.3. A Pilgrimage to Buddhist Temples in New Delhi        361

for Global Society                                                          370

in New Delhi                                                                  372

in South Korea                                                               375

  • The Buddha’s Symphony of Absolute Silence:

Buddhist Events in India (2003)                                   379

of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha in India                                    403

Appendix:                                                                                 419

Photos of Vietnamese Monastics

and Bhiksuni TN Giới Hương in India (1995-2005)             419

Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf                                                          465

About the Author                                                                    477

 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH VERSION

S
 

panning a 21-year journey (2005–2026), The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995– 2005) (Ban Mai Xứ Ấn – Nhật Ký Mười Năm Tu học tại đất Phật) has become a close companion to many readers. Following four successful printings, this fifth edition returns with a distinguished new format: a comprehensive single-volume collection of 434 pages, consolidating the original three-volume series into one.

Furthermore, with all conditions favorably aligned, the work is now officially debuting in English.

This edition reflects the aspiration to encapsulate over three decades of a spiritual and academic journey through four key updates:

Refinement: The content has been meticulously edited to remove redundancies, ensuring a more concise, coherent, and accessible narrative.

Illustrative Imagery: Each chapter is interspersed with vivid illustrations that clarify and enhance the transmission of the teachings.

Ban Mai Xứ Ấn – Nhật Ký Mười Năm Tu học tại đất Phật (1995-2005): The Appendix has been expanded to include 94 precious photographs of monastic students and pilgrimage delegations at various sacred sites between 1995 and 2005. These serve as a “living documentary” of an early period, one filled with hardships yet brimming with spiritual joy, for Vietnamese monastics in India at the end of the 20th century.

Academic Contribution: The table of contents has been systematically reorganized, featuring a specialized compilation of thesis and dissertation topics from monastic students in the 1990s. This serves as a practical reference and an inspiration for the research paths of current students.

This edition reached completion through the dedicated support of Mr. Vũ Đình Trọng, Mr. Michael Davis, and our enthusiastic collaborators, along with the assistance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in editing and data organization. We wish to express our deepest gratitude for these meritorious contributions.

It is our hope that this book will serve as a bridge connecting the past and the present, further igniting the flame of wisdom for those venturing on the path of Buddhist studies in India.

Homage to the Blessed and Fully Awakened Buddha. 

Huong Sen Spring, April 2026 Sincerely,

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

                     ***

 

 INTRODUCTION

‘T
 

he Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)’ by Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

is a memoir chronicling the thoughts, Buddhist activities, and academic journey of a nun who spent ten years studying at the University of Delhi. It also captures the sacred emotions experienced while personally visiting and prostrating at the Buddhist holy sites in India.

Lumbini (the birthplace of the Prince Siddhartha/Buddha), Bodh Gaya (the place of Enlightenment), Sārnāth (where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of Dharma), and Kushinagar (where the Buddha entered Parinirvana) are the four famous holy sites of Buddhism. These four pivotal stages, along with other events in the Buddha’s life, have served as subjects for thousands of Buddhist artworks. Numerous temples, stupas, and inscriptions were built to honor these sites.

However, through centuries of Buddhist decline and absence in India, most of these relics were destroyed, burned, and fell into ruin over time. Today, archaeologists are excavating and attempting to restore them to their ancient original forms.

Key Highlights of the Work

In “The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)”, the author provides:

Detailed Descriptions: Meticulous accounts of important Buddhist Holy Places and personal reflections.

Historical Context: References to the historical records of Faxian and Xuanzang, as well as modern Buddhist literature, complete with documentary photos and illustrative maps.

Academic Insights: Guidance on Master’s, M.Phil., and PhD programs within the Department of Buddhist Studies at the University of Delhi.

Contemporary Life: Observations on the daily lives of monks and nuns, the state of Buddhism in India, and other modern contexts.

These insights and experiences serve as a valuable resource for young monastics intending to study in India or embark on pilgrimages. Furthermore, the book documents a historical chapter involving over 150 Vietnamese monks and nuns who traveled abroad to study in India in the 1990s.

I respectfully introduce Dawn in the Land of India to the Venerable Elders, scholars, and readers everywhere.

March 26, 2006

Most Venerable Thích Mãn Giác

Abbot of the Vietnam Temple in Los Angeles, USA

Keep your eyes wide to behold, O traveler, The Dawn in India, exquisitely beautiful.

Preserving pages of Buddhist history to brighten life,

In the flowing waters of the Ganges, whose reflection shines?

For a thousand years, the Buddha Tathagata, In the sparkling Ganges, His image appears.

Hãy mở mắt mãi nhìn người ơi Ban mai Ấn-độ tuyệt vời đẹp tươi Lưu trang Phật sử sáng đời

Sông Hằng nước chảy rạng ngời bóng ai Nghìn năm Phật tổ Như-lai

Sông Hằng lấp lánh bóng ngài hiện ra.

Dawn in the Land of India – 3 Volumes March 29, 2006

Most Venerable Thích Mãn Giác

***

 

 PREFACE

A
 

ll things change, and time flows relentlessly. It has been exactly ten years (1995-2005) since I was blessed

with the opportunity to study and practice in the land of the Buddha, India, the place where our Great Buddha manifested and taught twenty-six centuries ago. As the day of my return to my homeland nears, I take up this pen to preserve for myself and others the sacred images of the historical paths where the Buddha and his disciples left their footprints.

I wish to capture the cherished memories of fellow monastics at the University of Delhi, the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel, and the multicultural tapestry of India’s people and landscapes. This work is a small token of my desire to share the knowledge gained at the University of Delhi and the insights from my pilgrimages with those who may not yet have, or are soon to have, the karma to visit India. It is also an expression of deep gratitude toward my benefactors, teachers, and the Triple Gem who have supported my spiritual life for over twenty years.

In the 7th century, Master Xuanzang traveled alone across treacherous terrain and harsh climates to seek the holy sites and study at Nālandā University. In the 21st century, travel for study and pilgrimage is far more accessible, which is why nearly 200 Vietnamese monastics have journeyed to India in recent years.

I titled this collection “THE DAWN IN INDIA: A TEN-YEAR DIARY OF BUDDHIST DISCOVERY (1995–2005)” because

the image of sunrise over the sacred Ganges River (Varanasi, India) moved me profoundly. The Ganges is the most sacred river mentioned in Buddhist scriptures, revered by Indians as a goddess or a mother who bestows life.

From ancient times to the present, as the sun slowly rises in the east, the light cloaks the water in a shimmering, silvery-pink hue. Against a jade-like sky, millions of people gather along the banks to bathe, pray, and drink the sacred water. The cities and ancient pilgrimage centers lining these shores represent the pinnacle of Indian civilization. It is this mystical and romantic atmosphere that inspired me to write about my years of study here in ten years (1995-2005).

Overview of the Three Volumes

The collection is organized as follows:

Volume I: Amemoir reflecting on my experiences while studying at the University of Delhi and on pilgrimage, introducing readers to the culture, education, religion, and people of India.

Volume II: A collection of 16 articles previously published in Buddhist magazines and websites. Topics include the Maitreya Buddha project in Bodh Gaya, teachings of the Dalai Lama, the history of the Bodhi Tree, and the legacy of Nālandā University.

Volume III: Comprises 16 writings on diverse subjects, such as the Kiều Đàm Di (Mahapajapati) Vietnamese Temple in Vaishali, Buddhist pilgrimages in New Delhi, Korean Buddhism, women and Buddhist precepts, and reflections on global peace, and so on.

I respectfully present these three volumes to you, the readers. I kindly ask for your compassion in correcting any errors or omissions that may have occurred due to my limited capacity.

With sincere gratitude, Delhi, Summer 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

***

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image007.jpg

A Moment of Reflection: Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in the floral courtyard of the Faculty of Arts Library, University of Delhi (1995).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

clip_image009.gif

 
  clip_image011.gif


 Volume I

 

 CHAPTER 1: COME TO THE LAND OF INDIA

  • Dream to study in India be true
  • The First Days in Delhi
  • Rent Room in Kingsway Camp to study
  • Post-Graduate Women’s Hostel

CHAPTER 2: BUDDHIST STUDIES IN UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

  • Overview of the Master of Arts (M.A.) in Buddhist Studies
  • Phil (Master of Philosophy) Program
  • Doctoral (Ph.D.) Program

CHAPTER 3: PILGRIMAGE TO BUDDHIST HOLY SITES

  • Bodhgaya
  • Rājagaha
  • Nālandā
  • Sārnāth
  • Lumbini
  • Kushinagar
  • Amaravathi
  • Nāgārjunikoṇḍā

CHAPTER 4: ACADEMIC AND SPIRITUAL LIFE OF

 

VIETNAMESE MONASTIC

  • Lunar New Year and other ceremonies in Delhi (February

1996)

  • Regulations on The Management of Vietnamese Students in India
  • The Association of Vietnamese Students in Delhi
  • Academic Challenges and the topic of Buddhis Studies
  • Reflections On Keeping a Diary
  • Seminar Society Yearbook Reflections (02-06-2001)

CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNIFICENT LANDSCAPES AND LANDMARKS OF INDIA

  • Manali
  • Taj Mahal – Agra
  • Shimla
  • Himalaya Mount, Nepal
  • Mumbai
  • Elephanta Caves
  • Madras
  • Naini Tal
 
  clip_image013.jpg

CHAPTER 1

COME TO THE LAND OF INDIA

 1.1.   DREAM TO STUDY IN INDIA BE TRUE

I
 

left Vietnam over two years ago, at 1:30 PM on June 19, 1995, departing from Tan Son Nhat Airport on Thai Airways

to Delhi, India. Late that same night, India welcomed me with pale yellow streetlights and the first rains of the season veiling the streets.

 
  clip_image015.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương: Flying with the dream of studying in India. Aboard Thai Airways, June 19, 1995, commencing a ten-year journey of academic and spiritual discovery.

 

India has become my second home, a place that has helped me to win my abroad study and cultivate my understanding of the Dharma and broaden my knowledge after years of living in temples and studying at the Vietnam Institute of Advanced Buddhist Studies (1989-1994, Khóa II, Trường Cao Cấp Phật Học, HCM City).

I love India deeply and tenderly. It is a land of poetic landscapes and a people with customs that are quite strange yet incredibly charming. While I wish to write volumes about this country, I can only introduce a few joyful and unique glimpses of the land of India here.

1.1.i.         THE     PROFOUND     HERITAGE    OF    INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

India is the seventh-largest country in the world, spanning 3,288,000km. From the far north, it rests its head on the Himalayas, where majestic mountains are draped in white snow. To the far south, it stretches along the Indian Ocean with romantic, sun-drenched, and seductive beaches.

The country boasts four major cities:

  • Kolkata (Calcutta): In the East, gentle and rustic, with the blue Hooghly River winding through it.
  • Chennai (Madras): In the South, the heart of traditional Tamil culture, with its solemn, ancient
  • Mumbai (Bombay): In the West, a bustling commercial hub, as glamorous as a fairy wearing shimmering embroidered slippers during night festivals.
  • Delhi: In the North, the capital and a renowned center for culture and education, is the place where many “young birds” from Vietnam, like myself, have come to nest and

India is a country renowned for its sublime and profound philosophical foundations. It stands as one of the oldest, richest, and most unique cradles of ancient philosophy for humanity in general, and the East in particular.

Ancient Scriptures and Epics

The Vedas, including the ancient Rig-veda, express the primitive yet philosophically sophisticated cosmic concepts of the ancient Indians, interpreting the ultimate origin and essence of the “Tao” (the Way). The massive epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, hold immense value not only in history, literature, and linguistics but also offer deep insights into moral philosophy and human existence.

Buddhist and Traditional Schools

The teachings of the Buddha, with philosophies such as the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Twelve Links of Dependent Origination,” elucidate the nature of things and the true essence of humanity. They point toward a path of self-liberation through intuitive perception and “spiritual realization.” This is truly a philosophy of life, a way of living.

Various schools, including Jainism, Hinduism, Yoga, and Samkhya, have interpreted the principles of the universe as an absolute, miraculous, and immortal force. This force remains hidden behind and governs the visible, phenomenal world of birth and death. These systems aim to help the human spirit transcend internal conflicts:

  • Between good and evil.
  • Between the infinite, immortal absolute spirit and the tangible world of sensory

Indian philosophical thought is incredibly profound and rich, rivaling any rationalist system of the West.

A Western Perspective

It was this depth that led the Western historian Michelet (1789– 1874) to praise it with great admiration:

“Whoever has acted or desired too much, let them drink deeply from this cup of life and youth. In the West, everything is narrow. Tiny Greece makes me feel stifled; the dry land of Judea makes it hard for me to breathe. Let me turn toward Great Asia and the profound East for a moment. It is there that my great poem was born, as vast as the Indian Ocean, overflowing with brilliant and benevolent sunlight, creating an atmosphere of peace and boundless love even amidst scenes of conflict and contradiction.”1

1.1.ii.   VIBRANT FESTIVALS AND CULTURE

India is a land of many religions and beliefs, resulting in colorful festivals filled with unique rituals. While Hinduism accounts for 80% of the population (Buddhism is a modest 0.8%), its festivals define much of the cultural landscape.

  • Naag Panchami: A day to worship snakes, symbols of rain, and protectors against evil.
  • Raksha Bandhan: Where devotees of the sea god Varuna offer coconuts to the waters. I once saw a car filled to the brim with coconuts being driven to the sea in Mumbai for this ritual.
  • Diwali (The Festival of Lights): Comparable to the Vietnamese Lunar New Year. It marks the victory of light over darkness and honors Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. Homes are cleaned, decorated with flowers and “rangoli” (colored powder designs), and illuminated
 
  clip_image016.gif
  • Nehru Jawaharlal, The Discovery of India, Signel, Calcutta 1956, page

by countless oil lamps (diyas) and candles, making the Indian sky glow. For a student far from home, the sound of firecrackers and the smoky mist of Diwali poignantly stir memories of the homeland.

a.The Joyous Spirit of Holi

The most exhilarating and mischievous festival is Holi, celebrating the victory of right over wrong. It marks the end of winter and the arrival of spring.

The day of Holi is a riot of color. Young people gather to throw “gulal” (colored powder) and spray colored water on friends and strangers alike. If you step outside on this day, expect to be greeted with a face full of pigment and a “Happy Holi!”

 
  clip_image018.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (left) and Lê T. Tâm (right): Drenched in water and covered in colorful powder while joining students to celebrate the Holi Festival at the P.G. Women’s Hostel, March 1996.

 

At my residence, the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel, which

houses 400 students, the celebration was boisterous. My friend and I, the two Vietnamese students, tried to peek out to watch the festivities, but we were immediately swarmed by students shouting “Happy Holi!”

Soon, our faces were a messy mosaic of black, red, blue, and yellow. We watched the Indian students, usually so elegant and beautiful, dancing wildly in the mud and water, looking more like comedic characters than the graceful young women we knew. We laughed until our sides ached, truly, “laughter is the best medicine.” By the time I looked in a public mirror, I didn’t even recognize my own face!

b.An Invitation

India, to me, is a collection of cherished memories: the purple chrysanthemums at the University of Delhi, classmates from all corners of the world, the hardworking elderly gatekeepers, the sweating rickshaw pullers, and the street children whose faces are smudged with dirt but who find joy in a single Rupee.

c.Come to India. Come for its poetic scenery, its rustic people, and its profound spiritual philosophy. It is a world of mystery and wonder. Visiting India is not just about learning the nuances of an ancient civilization; it is about enriching your own thoughts.

Most importantly, for children of the Buddha, India is the land of the Great Teacher Sakyamuni Buddha. It is here that His ancient footprints are preserved, along with the eternal truth of liberation that we strive to follow step by step.

 1.2.                                         THE FIRST DAYS IN DELHI

I stand leaning against the window, watching the early morning mist blanket the courtyard of the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel. Tiny white lemon blossoms, no larger than a fingertip, flutter in the wind. These flowers, with their white petals and red

stamens, are fragile and tender; they nestle shyly in the palm of my hand. A few Indian students, their hair cascading over their shoulders, join me in gathering the fallen blooms. In India, it is customary to offer loose flowers or garlands to the Buddha and Hindu deities, rather than arranging them in vases with stems and leaves as we do in Vietnam.

Solemnly, I offer the plate of lemon blossoms to the Buddha and return to my study corner. My notebook lies open, and the past comes rushing back…

1.2.i.  Departure: A Heavy Farewell

On that day in 1995, as the sun rose high over Ho Chi Minh City, I headed to Tan Son Nhat Airport. My father, my aunt, family, monastic classmates, and nearly forty fellow Buddhists were there to see me off. The warmth of their presence moved me deeply. After final farewells and photographs, I pushed my luggage toward the departure gate.

“The beginning is always the hardest.” Yes, the first time as a young nun went to abroad, many challenges was ahead.

Cultural & Linguistic Shifts: Moving from a familiar environment to one where the customs, food, and language are entirely different requires a constant, exhausting level of mental and spiritual adaptation.

Before leaving, a senior monk had advised me to pack light, just the essentials and an English-Vietnamese dictionary, staying within the 30kg limit. He reminded me of the Buddhist verse:

One bowl feeds on a thousand households’ rice, A lonely body wanders ten thousand miles.

Seeking to resolve the matter of birth and death,

Teaching and transforming through the passing years.

 

Despite this ideal of monastic simplicity, I found myself with three large suitcases and two heavy shoulder bags, weighing over 100kg. I felt I needed everything, from an old scrubbing brush to a worn-out robe. Ultimately, I had to leave 30kg behind with my Buddhist sisters and still pay $350 in excess baggage fees. At 1:30 PM, Thai Airways flight TG681 took off for Bangkok.

1.2.ii.   Between the Clouds and the Earth

Being my first flight, I was anxious. My seat was by the window, offering a view of the vast sky. As the engines roared, I followed a friend’s advice: cotton balls in the ears to dampen the noise during takeoff, chewing gum to stabilize ear pressure, and two motion-sickness pills.

The airplane had climbed high. Looking down at the globe below, I saw only a blanket of white clouds, veiling all human activity. The clouds were a dreamy, silvery white. I felt as if I were floating, distant, hovering, and soaring into some strange, unknown realm.

 
  clip_image019.gif


Since childhood, I have been accustomed to living upon the earth; eating, living, and walking… with my heels always touching the sand and grit. The Śūraṅgama Sūtra2 teaches that

  • The Śūraṅgama Sūtra (The Sutra of the Foremost Shurangama at the Buddha’s Summit), Volume Six, translated from Chinese to Vietnamese and summarized by Thích Duy Lực, USA, 1990:

“If a Bhikshu (monk) does not wear silk, does not wear shoes or sandals made of sheepskin, and does not consume milk, cream, or butter... or anything derived from the bodies of living beings, then this Bhikshu is said to be truly liberated within this world. When their ancient debts are fully repaid, they shall not be reborn into the Three Realms.

Why is this? Because if one uses parts of the bodies of living beings for food or clothing, one must repay the debt to those beings. Just as those who eat grains grown from the earth find that their feet cannot leave the ground, so too, regarding those who neither eat nor wear anything from the bodies of living beings—I say such people are truly liberated.

What I have taught in this way is the teaching of the Buddha; any teaching that differs from this is the teaching of Mara (the demon).” https://thienphatgiao.wordpress.com/2013/04/04/kinh-thu-lang-nghiem-

as long as one consumes the five grains, their feet will remain bound to the earth. Now, suspended in the air like a bird without a hint of weight, flying amidst the vast cosmic sky, I found the experience truly enlightening.

The Radiance of the Night

As night gradually fell, the view became magnificent. Above, there were a thousand stars and a thousand eyes. I felt like a celestial being suspended in a shimmering realm of tiny, lovely, twinkling stars. Those stars and constellations felt so close that I imagined I could reach out and capture them in my hands.

I arrived in Bangkok at 3:10 PM and had a four-hour layover. The airport was modern and spotless, reflecting a strong sense of public discipline. However, sitting alone in that vast waiting room, surrounded by strangers, a profound sense of loneliness washed over me. I recalled a teaching from the late Most Venerable Huệ Hưng:

Forever a traveler in the misty dust of the world,

Each day passing is ten thousand miles further from home.

I realized then that “near” or “far” are just perceptions. If we live with wisdom, we see that all things, coming and going, meeting and parting, are governed by causes and conditions (nidana). If we touch our true nature, there is no separation, and thus, no reason for such heart-wrenching sorrow.

1.2.iii.    Arrival: The midnight rain welcomes the traveler from afar

At 8:00 PM, I boarded flight TG315 for Delhi. I was amazed to see that nearly 90% of the passengers, from the elderly to infants, requested vegetarian meals. In India, the Hindu tradition of vegetarianism is so prevalent that “Non-Veg” is the exception.

 
  clip_image020.gif

thichduyluc/

As night fell, the view became magical. Above, the stars were so close I felt I could reach out and pluck them. Below, Delhi sparkled like a velvet carpet encrusted with diamonds. We touched down at Indira Gandhi International Airport at 11:00 PM.

Confused by the time, I struck up my first conversation in English with a fellow traveler, only to realize that Vietnam is 90 minutes ahead of India.

As I pushed my cart through the arrivals gate, my anxiety vanished. I saw Bhikṣuṇī H.L. waving frantically, accompanied by Bhikṣuṇī Đ.A. and Bhikṣu G.T. A wide, relieved smile finally crossed my lips.

As we walked to the taxi, a light rain began to fall. “This is the first rain of the season,” one of them remarked. “Perhaps the earth is cooling itself to welcome you.” I smiled, touched by the auspicious welcome. As the taxi drove through the quiet, lamp- lit streets of New Delhi, the mist and the drizzle felt like a gentle embrace from my new home.

 1.3.   RENT ROOM IN KINGSWAY CAMP TO STUDY

The room in the house number 1555, Outram Lines, Kingsway Camp, Delhi-9, was my first residence in India. Along with Bhikṣuṇī s Đ.A., V.L., L.T., and H.L., we lived together in this flat happily, sharing a bond of sisterly love and creating many unforgettable memories.

Outram Lines is a middle-class residential area near the Kingsway Camp market, located northeast of the University of Delhi and about five kilometers away. Many Vietnamese monks and nuns rent rooms here because it is secure, close to the market, and within walking distance of the university. Most buildings

here are constructed in an old Indo-British architectural style, using large, solid stones designed to withstand the extremes of the local climate, from sub-zero winters to scorching summers reaching 45°C or 50°C.

The architecture and home decor are ornate and full of intricate patterns, contrasting with the simple, elegant lines found in Japan or Vietnam. This love for ornamentation extends to personal fashion. Indian women often wear vibrant, multi- colored clothing and an abundance of jewelry. It is common to see ten or more rings and necklaces in gold, red, and blue, with piercings not just in the earlobes but along the upper cartilage, and even gold hoops in the nostrils. Not stopping at wrists and fingers, they wear silver or gold anklets with tiny bells that chime “clink-clink” with every step. Occasionally, I would see a woman in a perfectly coordinated, single-toned suit, looking exceptionally sophisticated.

1.3.i.  Approaching the everyday life of the Indian people

India is a land of advanced technology, nuclear reactors, and smog-filled avenues, yet it simultaneously presents images of extreme poverty. Beside the sturdy buildings and polished cars of Outram Lines lie “slums,” clusters of low, cramped huts made of cardboard, burlap, and tarpaulin.

The people living there survive through manual labor:

  • Rickshaw pullers: Who pedal from the front while passengers sit
  • Laundry workers and domestic servants: A very common profession where people work by the hour or live with their
  • Small vendors: Selling vegetables, sweets, or paan (betel nut) with a total capital of less than 300 Rupees (approx. 100,000 VND).

The number of beggars in India felt, to me, like the highest in the world. They gather in long lines behind foreign tourists and pilgrims, congregating at temple gates or intersections. When the traffic light turns red, they approach luxury cars with outstretched hands. If they spot a foreigner, they are persistent; some might even grab your sleeve with dark, dusty hands until you give something. I also noticed poor women carrying small shrines of Lord Shiva (the supreme Hindu deity, revered as the Buddha is in Buddhist countries) decorated with marigolds and incense, inviting passersby to offer coins to the god, a practice I personally found culturally jarring, though it seemed a deep- rooted social reality.

1.3.ii. The Night Watchman

Most middle- and upper-class residential blocks have iron gates at the ends of the streets and night watchmen. In my section of Outram Lines, the guards were usually elderly men. They would stay awake all night, walking slowly and silently, their eyes scanning the darkness. The only sound was the rhythmic “tap-tap, tap-tap” of their wooden staves hitting the ground.

When I first arrived, a senior monk jokingly told me that residents had to take turns doing night watch duty once a month. I was horrified at the thought of having such a “duty”! I later learned he was teasing; in reality, every house in the neighborhood contributes a monthly fee to hire these guards for collective security.

Back in Vietnam, I used to nap near a window where pigeons nested, falling asleep to their gentle cooing. In India, I grew accustomed to the rhythmic “tap-tap” of the watchman. That steady sound, echoing from a distance in the middle of the night, became a comforting signal of safety, allowing me to sleep soundly.

On July 23, 1995, Bhikṣuṇī M.H. and I received news that

our application to the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel at the University of Delhi had been accepted. After one month and four days at Outram Lines, I packed my bags once more, bidding farewell to house 1555, the place that had sheltered and embraced me during my very first days on Indian soil.

 1.4.   POST GRADUATE WOMEN HOSTEL

The P.G. Women Hostel (Post Graduate Women Hostel) of the University of Delhi, located on Chhatra Marg, is home to over 350 female students. They come from every corner of India and across the globe, Vietnam, Thailand, Tibet, Nepal, Russia, China, Taiwan, Iran, and South Korea. These students are enrolled in M.A., M.Phil., and Ph.D. programs in fields ranging from Buddhist Studies and Philosophy to Law and Mathematics. With such a diverse array of ethnicities and languages, I felt like a wide-eyed child lost in a vast forest of exotic flowers.

 
  clip_image022.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (brown), a monk

and Bhikṣuṇī TN Nguyên Hương at P.G. Women’s Hostel.

 

1.4.i.  Life Behind the Gates

Student life here is carefully guarded by walls over two meters high. A strict curfew begins at 8:00 PM; leaving the gates after this hour is forbidden. To stay out overnight, one must present a “Night Out” book and obtain a signature from the administration. Visitors, male or female, must register their name, address, nationality, and the room number of the student they are visiting. We monastics often joked that visiting the hostel was as difficult as visiting a President!

In reality, these were standard administrative procedures. We had a common room for visitors; female guests were welcome all day, while male guests were restricted to the common room between 4:00 PM and 7:00 PM. When a guest arrived, the receptionist would announce the student’s name over the loudspeaker. During visiting hours, the canteen and lobby would buzz with activity and the constant blare of the intercom.

 
  clip_image024.jpg

Front gate of P.G. Women’s Hostel in 1995.

 

1.4.ii. The Rhythm of the Mess Hall

After dinner, we had a daily roll call. A mark of ‘P’ stood for Present, ‘L’ for Late (limited to eight times a month), and ‘N’ for Night Out.

Mealtime was the most vibrant part of the day. The staff managed to serve 400 students with incredible efficiency:

Breakfast: 7:30 – 8:30 AM

Lunch: 1:00 – 2:00 PM

Dinner: 8:00 – 9:00 PM

If you arrived late, the dining hall would be empty, and you’d stay hungry! When the dinner bell rang, much like the bell in a monastery, the sound of opening doors and shuffling slippers filled the hallways toward the Dining Hall. The “L-shaped” room buzzed with the “Bayas” (brothers) and “Ditis” (sisters) serving dal (a thick yellow lentil soup ubiquitous in India) and various curries. Within an hour, everything was gone.

Fortunately for us, since most Hindus are vegetarian, the hostel served primarily vegetarian food, potatoes, gourds, butter, and paneer. On Wednesday and Saturday nights, “Special Dinner” was served. Non-vegetarians had chicken, fish, or mutton (pork is never served here as it is considered unclean), while vegetarians enjoyed fresh mushrooms or stuffed bitter melon. All utensils were stainless steel; after eating, dishes were tossed into carts with a clatter that sounded like a bomb going off, hardly an environment for “mindful eating,” but full of life!

1.4.iii. Cultural Exchange and Yoga

While most Indian students ate with their hands, expertly mixing dal and rice without spilling a drop, students from Northeast India and East Asia often used spoons. In India and Sri Lanka, the hands are seen as the most natural and best tools for eating.

In my first year (1995-1996), I shared room D-8, then C-2, with an Indian student named Lal Zikpuii. A Sociology major from a Christian family in Mizoram, she was kind and graceful. We became fast friends. We would wake up early, around 6:00 AM, while the rest of the hostel was dreaming, and head to the nearby park to practice yoga.

 
  clip_image026.jpg

Right: Ven. Tâm Đức, Lal Zikpuii (the author’s roommate), Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, and Kavya amidst the vibrant flower gardens of Delhi University, March 1996.

 

The park was filled with elderly locals practicing various forms of exercise. One unique technique involved standing with arms wide, looking at the sky, and laughing loudly, “Ha ha ha!” for 15 minutes. Another involved chanting a long “Uuuuuu” to circulate fresh air into the lungs. These sessions left us feeling refreshed and optimistic.

The early morning in Delhi is magical, the city is veiled in mist, and the university campus, with its ancient trees, is silent and serene. Delhi is also a city of flowers; every March, the university hosts a Flower Show.

1.4.iv.A Lesson in Wisdom

Despite our different faiths, Zikpuii and I found harmony. I shared with her a story by the master Sathya Sai Baba about a king seeking the “best religion.” A sage showed the king several boats to cross the Ganges. The king rejected each one for minor flaws, such as a cracked plank, a missing nail, or peeling paint. The sage finally told him:

“Though they have flaws, any of these boats can carry you across the river. Likewise, any religion can lead you to the Supreme. Finding faults in different faiths is a waste of wisdom.”

From then on, Zikpuii would help me gather flowers for my Buddhist altar, and I would join her at the university chapel on Sundays.

In my small room, I set up a modest altar with a wooden statue of the Fasting Buddha, emaciated and showing every rib. This image of the Buddha’s extreme asceticism and unwavering determination deeply moved me. In India, such statues are meticulously carved from wood or stone, capturing the physical toll of his quest for truth. It served as a daily reminder of the strength of the human spirit and the power of persistence.

 
  clip_image027.jpg

CHAPTER 2

DEPARTMENT OF BUDDHIST STUDIES IN DELHI UNIVERSITY

I
 

n August 1995, after settling into my new life at the hostel for about two weeks, I officially began my studies. My first- year Master’s (M.A.) class in Buddhist Studies was a diverse gathering of both monastics and laypeople from India, South Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Tibet. Representing Vietnam were five of us: Bhikṣu ĐM, Bhikṣu TT,

Bhikṣu BC, Bhikṣuṇī HL, and me.

At that time, there were around 100 Buddhist Vietnamese monastics who joined this department.

2.1.   OVERVIEW OF THE MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) IN BUDDHIST STUDIES

2.1.i.   THE M.A. PROGRAM

The M.A. program at the Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi, is a two-year course comprising eight papers (modules), each worth 100 points.

  • Year 1 (Previous A.): Students take four compulsory

papers plus Part I of Paper V.

  • Year 2 (Final A.): Students complete Part II of Paper V and choose a specialization group (A, B, C, D, E, or F) consisting of three additional papers.
 
  clip_image029.jpg

University of Delhi in 1995.

 

Language of Examination: Students may choose to write their exams in English or Hindi (the most prominent of India’s 64 official languages).

The Compulsory Curriculum

 

Paper

Subject Matter

Paper I

Pali Language and Literature

Paper II

Sanskrit Language and Buddhist Sanskrit Litera- ture

Paper III

History of Buddhism (India and Abroad)

Paper IV

Buddhist Philosophy

 

 

Paper

Subject Matter

Paper V

Group A: Chinese Language & Buddhism OR Group B: Tibetan Language & Buddhism

Specialization Groups (Year 2)

After completing the foundational year, students dive into specific research areas:

  • Group A (Pali Literature): Focused on the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma
  • Group B (Sanskrit Buddhism): Focused on Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Tantric
  • Group C (History of Buddhism): Focused on international history, Buddhist art, architecture, and
  • Group D (Buddhist Philosophy): Focused on logic, epistemology, Madhyamika (Middle Way), and
  • Group E (Chinese Buddhism): Focused on the introduction and influence of Buddhism in China.
  • Group F (Tibetan Buddhism): Focused on Tibetan literature, philosophy, and

Detailed Breakdown of Year 1 (Part I) Paper I: Pali Language and Literature

Supervised by Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala and Dr. S. Pavagadhi.

  • Texts: Includes the Mahavagga, Patimokkha (Monastic Rules), Theragatha/Therigatha (Verses of Elders), and the Milindapanha (Questions of King Milinda).
  • Grammar: Studying the Kaccayana Vyakarana (Sandhi, Case endings, Tenses).
  • History: The origin of the Pali language and the history of

the three Great Buddhist Councils.

Paper II: Sanskrit Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. San Singh.

  • Texts: Major Mahayana Sūtras such as the Lotus Sūtra (Saddharmapundarika), Amitabha Sūtra, and Diamond Sūtra.
  • Linguistics: A study of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS), its nature, evolution, and how it differs from Classical
  • Historical Figures: The philosophy of great masters like

Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, and Santideva.

Paper III: History of Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. Dr. K.T.S. Sarao.

  • Indian History: The life of the Buddha, the formation of the Sangha, royal patronage (Kings Bimbisara, Ashoka, Kanishka), and the decline of Buddhism in India.
  • International Spread: The journey of the Dharma into Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand) and North Asia (Tibet, China, Korea, Japan).

Paper IV: Buddhist Philosophy

Supervised by Prof. Dr. I. N. Singh.

  • Foundations: The Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and Dependent
  • Comparative Thought: Buddhism in relation to other Indian schools like Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta.
  • Metaphysics: The denial of a permanent “Self” (Anatta) and a “Creator God,” and the concept of Momentariness (Ksanabhangavada).
  • Mahayana Concepts: The Three Bodies of Buddha (Trikaya), the Bodhisattva ideal, and Buddhist

The academic environment here is rigorous. Unlike the devotional atmosphere of a temple, the university treats Buddhism as a subject of critical historical and philosophical inquiry. This shift from “believing” to “analyzing” was a new and challenging experience for many of us.

PAPER V (A) – PART I: Chinese Language and Chinese Buddhism

Supervised by Dr. R. K. Rana. When forced to choose between Chinese and Tibetan, most Vietnamese students choose Chinese. This is because Chinese is more common in Vietnam, and Mahayana monastics are already familiar with Han characters (Hán tự) and scriptures, making it feel closer than Tibetan. This paper is worth 50 points for Part I (Year 1) and 50 points for Part II (Year 2).

Curriculum for Paper V (A):

  1. Origins and Evolution of Chinese Writing: Basic knowledge of grammar and classical syntax (10 points).
  2. 50 Buddhist Terms in Chinese: A specific list compiled by the Department (10 points).
  3. Modern Chinese: Taught by Anita Sharma (10 points).
  4. The Introduction of Buddhism into China: The mutual influence between Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Readings include essays from Confucius, Mouzi, Laozi, and Zhuangzi (10 points).
  5. The Diamond Sūtra (Jin Gang Bo Ruo Jing): Translation exercises from Chinese to English and vice versa (10 points).

clip_image031.jpg

Department of Buddhist Studies, Delhi University.

 

2.1.ii.   ACADEMIC LIFE AND THE HOLIDAYS

This was my first time attending classes with international students, providing a great opportunity to practice English. At first, following the lectures was difficult. The professors were excellent, and while we sat looking attentive and nodding, our eyes would glaze over when asked, “Do you have any questions?” We would stare into the distance as if we hadn’t heard! It took about three years of “stuffing” my ears with the language before I truly understood everything.

One unique aspect of studying in India is the seasonal breaks. We had an Autumn break from October 1st to 15th. In total, there are three major breaks:

  • Summer: April to July (due to extreme heat, often 36°C to 52°C).
  • Autumn: October 1st – 15th (the “High Season” for

pilgrimage).

  • Winter: January 10th – 25th (due to cold, often -2°C to 7°C).

India’s deep respect for religion is evident in its calendar. In 1998, out of 26 public holidays, 16 were religious festivals spanning Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and Buddhism.

 
  clip_image033.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

at the Buddhist Studies Department of Delhi University.

 

2.1.iii.  AUTUMN REFLECTIONS AND NATURE

During the autumn break, while my roommate Lal Zikpuii went home, I stayed back. The autumn air in Delhi, cool with a hazy grey sky, reminded me of the 15th day of the 7th lunar month in Vietnam. Sometimes, the melodious singing of an Indian student would trigger a wave of homesickness for my temple and family.

I often spent my afternoons studying in the park near the hostel. I would bring fried bread, apples, and peanuts to share with the local animals. In India, animals are incredibly bold because

most people are vegetarian. Their compassion creates a safe environment for monkeys, squirrels, and birds to roam freely. Even the cows are gentle and friendly; I often felt a silent, sacred connection with them just through our eyes.

2.1.iv.   NEW ROOM IN P.G.WOMEN’S HOSTEL

In my second year (Final M.A.), I moved into my own room, B-7. It was a dream location, facing a garden with coconut palms, a mango tree, and a Java plum (Trâm) tree.

My Personal Sanctuary:

  • The Kitchen: I set up a small stove under the coconut tree.
  • The Hammock: I hung a Vietnamese-style hammock between two palms. This was a curiosity for the Indian students, as they usually only use hammocks for infants. They often asked to try it, but without the “technique” of sitting in the center, they would often tumble out, leading to rounds of laughter.
  • The Java Plum Harvest: After a storm, the ground would be covered in purple We would spread a tarp and shake the branches, then sit together dipping the sour, astringent fruit into salt until our tongues turned purple!

I spent almost all my time outdoors on that hammock, eating, napping, and studying late into the night. The gentle rhythm of the hammock kept me awake for my exams, unlike the way it lulls babies to sleep. This peaceful corner became so famous that my Indian friends would bring cameras to take photos of my unique “Vietnamese study base.”

2.1.v. FINAL YEAR CURRICULUM

On August 15, 1996, the final year began. Students choose one specialization from six groups (A through F) and continue with their chosen language requirement (Paper V):

  • Option A: Chinese Language and Buddhism
  • Option B: Tibetan Language and Buddhism

As we move into the Final M.A. (Year 2) at the University of Delhi, the curriculum shifts from foundational history and languages to high-level specialization. Depending on your chosen path, you engage deeply with the philosophical systems and literary canons of various Buddhist traditions.

2.1.vi.   SPECIALIZATION GROUPS AND CORE PAPERS

Students must continue with Paper V (the language requirement) and choose one Specialization Group (A through F). Each group consists of three papers (VI, VII, and VIII).

OUTLINE OF THE BUDDHIST POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM (M.A.)

Compulsory Modules

  1. Paper I: Pali Language and Literature
  2. Paper II: Sanskrit Literature and Buddhist Sanskrit
  3. Paper III: History of Buddhism in India and Abroad
  4. Paper IV: Buddhist Philosophy
  5. Paper V ‘A’ Part I & II: Chinese Language and Chinese Buddhism

OR Paper V ‘B’ Part I & II: Tibetan Language and Tibetan Buddhism

 
  clip_image034.gif

Elective Modules

  • Group A: Pali Literature

»   Paper VI: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, History, and Pali Commentaries

»   Paper VII: Early Abhidhamma

»   Paper VIII: Later Abhidhamma

•         Group B: Sanskrit Buddhism

»   Paper VI: Mahasamghika, Sthaviravada, and Sarvastivada

»   Paper VII: Mahayana Buddhism

»   Paper VIII: Mahayana, Tantrayana, and Vajrayana

•         Group C: History of Buddhism

»   Paper VI: History of Buddhism Outside India

»   Paper VII: Comparative Study of Buddhist Iconography, Architecture, and Art in India and Abroad

»   Paper   VIII:    Study   of    Buddhist   Topography   and Inscriptions

•         Group D: Buddhist Philosophy

»   Paper VI: Early Buddhist Philosophy, Abhidhamma, and Sarvastivada

»   Paper VII: Madhyamika or Yogacara

»   Paper VIII: Principles of Language, Logic, and Buddhist Epistemology

•         Group E: Chinese Buddhism

»   Paper VI: The Chinese Buddhist Sangha

»   Paper VII: The Introduction of Buddhism into China

»   Paper VIII: The Influence of Buddhism in China

•         Group F: Tibetan Buddhism

»   Paper VI: Tibetan Language and Literature

»   Paper VII: Buddhist Logic and Philosophy

»   Paper VIII: Esoteric Buddhism (Tantric Buddhism)

 
  clip_image035.gif

M.A. CURRICULUM (PART I – FIRST YEAR) Paper I: Pali Language and Literature

Supervised by Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala (Indian Theravada monk and Head of Department since 1996) and Dr. S. Pavagadhi.

 

 
  clip_image037.jpg

 

The Head of the Buddhist Studies Department, Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala (second from right),

and students on a field trip to a Tibetan Temple.

 

1)  Scriptural Texts (50 points):

  • Mahavagga (Great Chapter), Mahakhandhaka
  • Patimokkha (Code of Discipline)
  • Udana (Inspired Utterances)
  • Theragatha (Verses of the Elder Monks)
  • Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns)
  • Milindapañha (Questions of King Milinda)

2)  Pali Grammar and Composition:

  • Grammar (20 points): Kaccayana Vyakarana (Sandhi, Karaka, Samasa, Tense, Dhatugana, )
  • Composition (10 points): Translation (Pali to English/ Hindi and vice-versa); simple sentence
  • History of Pali (20 points): Position of Pali in the Indo- Aryan family; origin, development, and basic characteristics; overview of the three Buddhist Councils; the Tipitaka (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma) and Non-canonical texts.
 
  clip_image038.gif

Paper II: Sanskrit Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. San Singh.

  • A) Sanskrit Scriptural Texts (60 points):   Lotus Sutra, Sukhavativyuha Sutra, Diamond Sutra, Srighanacarasangraha, and
  • B) Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) Linguistics (20 points): Position in the Indo-European family; nature of hybridization; phonological changes and BHS
  • C) History of Sanskrit Buddhism (20 points): Introduction of Sanskrit into Buddhism; scriptures of the Mahasamghika and Sarvastivada; Avadana Jataka; Philosophy of great masters (Nagarjuna, Dignaga, Asanga, Vasubandhu, etc.); Mahayana and
 
  clip_image035.gif

Paper III: History of Buddhism in India and Abroad

Supervised by Prof. Dr KTS. Sarao.

 

  • A) Historical Sources (20 points): Literature, archaeology, and travelogues.
  • B) Buddhism in India (20 points): Life of the Buddha; Sangha establishment; Royal patronage (Bimbisara, Kanishka, ); Gupta and Pala periods.
  • C) Southeast Asian Expansion (20 points): Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indochina (Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos).
  • D) North Asian Expansion (20 points): Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan, and South

•         E) Buddhist Art and Architecture (20 points).

 

 
  clip_image034.gif

Paper IV: Buddhist Philosophy

Supervised by Prof. Dr. I. N. Singh.

  1. General Concepts: Nature of Metaphysics (Tattva- mimamsa)3; difference between philosophy, science, and Pre-Buddhist Indian philosophy (Vedas and Upanishads); concepts of Karma, Yoga4, and Nirvana.
 
  clip_image039.gif

  • Schools and Doctrines: Ajivikas5 and other systems (Carvaka, Jaina, Samkhya, Vedanta, ). Basic doctrines:
  • Tattva: Reality (Truth) and Mimamsa: The Mimamsa school (The school of investigation or manifestation according to conditions).
  • Yoga School: One of the six Vedic schools established around the 1st It advocates the practice of Yoga for liberation. The founder was Sage Patanjali, and the fundamental text is the Yoga Sutra. The term translates to “union” or “correspondence”—meaning correspondence with the faculties, environment, marks, principles, and cause-and-effect, etc. The Esoteric sect (Vajrayana) is also called the Yogachara School, and the Vijnanavada (Yogacara) school in India is referred to by this name as well.
  • Ajivika: A sect prevalent during the Buddha’s (An account mentions that when Venerable Mahakashyapa and 500 disciples arrived at the town of Kushinagar, they met an ascetic of the Ajivika sect who informed them that the Buddha had entered Parinirvana)

Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Dependent Origination. Denial of Self (Anatta) and God; Momentariness (Ksanabhangavada).

  1. Sects: Differences between Mahayana and Theravada; Sarvastivada, Vaibhasika,6 Sautrantika7, Madhyamika, Vedanta8 and Buddha-Darsana
  2. Ideals and Perfections: Bodhisattva, Arhat, and Six Perfections (Paramitas); Trikaya (Three Bodies of Buddha); Bodhicitta.
  3. Logic and Epistemology: General introduction to Buddhist logic, dialectics, and theories of language.

1.  Paper V: Language Specialization (Part II)

 
  clip_image040.gif

  • Option A: Chinese Buddhism: Focuses on the history of Buddhism from the 1st to 10th centuries, the modern
  • Vaisheshika (The School of Particularity): Also known as the School of Excellence or Pluralistic Realism. One of the six schools founded around the 1st century, it utilizes six categories—substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence—to explain phenomena. The founder was Sage Kanada, and the primary text is the Vaisheshika
  • Samkhya (The Enumeration School): Known by various names such as the School of Dualistic Evolution. It is a Brahminical school that operated in India before the Buddha’s birth. It relies on two primary principles—Purusha (Pure Spirit) and Prakriti (Root Matter)—to explain the reality of the The founder was Sage Kapila, and the fundamental text is the Samkhya Karika. It also refers to the Samkhya discourse within the Vedas.
  • The Vedanta school; the position and relationship of the Buddhist View (Buddha-Darsana) with the aforementioned perspectives.
  • Darśana (Sanskrit) / Dassana (Pali): Translates to “View” or “Vision.” In this context, it refers to the Five Views (Five types of wrong or limited perception):
  1. Satkayadrishti: View of a self/body.
  2. Antagrahadrishti: Extreme views (eternalism or nihilism).
  • Mithyadrishti: False/wrong
  1. Drishtiparamarsha: Attachment to views.
  2. Shilavrataparamarsha: Attachment to mere rites and

Chinese language, and the translation methodology used for the Lotus Sūtra.

  • Option B: Tibetan Buddhism: Focuses on the Avadana Kalpalata, Nagarjuna’s Mulamadhyamika Karika (Middle Way), and Yogacara texts like the Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only.
 
  clip_image042.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and three Sri Lankan monks in front of the Art Faculty Library, Delhi University, 1997.

 

 
  clip_image043.gif

2.  Group A: Pali Buddhism

Supervised by Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala and Dr. S. Pavagadgi. This track is for those specializing in the Theravada tradition and the Pali Canon.

 
  clip_image019.gif


Paper VI (Sutta & Vinaya): Vinaya Pitaka (The Basket of Discipline): Mahavagga (The Great Chapter, one of the divisions of the Vinaya Pitaka), Uposatha Khandhaka (The Chapter on the Observance Day, the second part of the Vinaya Pitaka)10, and

  • Khandhaka (Pali): The Khandhaka scriptures. A collection of monastic codes that prescribe various rituals and ceremonies for the Sangha community. “Uposatha” refers to the ritual of confession and recitation of the precepts

Vassupanayika Khandhaka (The Chapter on Entering the Rainy Season Retreat);

In-depth study of the Mahavagga (monastic rules) and major Nikayas (Long, Middle, and Connected Discourses).

Paper VII (Early Abhidhamma): Analysis of the Dhammasangani (Enumeration of Phenomena) and the Patthana (Conditional Relations).

Paper VIII (Late Abhidhamma): Study of post-canonical works like the Abhidhammattha-sangaha (Compendium of Philosophy) and Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification).

 
  clip_image034.gif

3.  Group B: Sanskrit Buddhist Literature

Supervised by Prof. S. Singh. Focuses on the texts of the Mahasanghika, Sarvastivada, and Mahayana schools preserved in Sanskrit.

  • Paper VI: Study of the Mahavastu (The Great Event), Jnanaprasthana Sastra (The Treatise on the Foundation of Knowledge)11, Avadana-shataka (The Hundred Legends)12, and the story of Prince Nanda and his wife Sundari (Saundarananda).
  • Paper VII: Advanced Mahayana Sūtras including the
 
  clip_image044.gif


Dashabhumika (Ten Stages)13 and the Lankavatara Sūtra.

(Poṣadha).

  • Jnana: Wisdom (Knowledge); Prasthana: Foundation (Source/Ground); Sastra: Treatise (Commentary).
  • Avadāna-shataka (Sanskrit): The “Sutra of the Collected Hundred Legends,” consisting of 100 discourses taught by the Buddha regarding parables of causes and conditions, and the past causes and future effects of his disciples. It is a scripture belonging to the Vaipulya (Extended)
  • Śikṣāsamuccaya (Sanskrit): The “Compendium of Training” (or “Compendium of Bodhisattva Trainings”), also known as the Collection of It was authored by the venerable Shantideva.
  • Paper VIII: Exploration of Vajrayana and Tantra, including Lotus Sutra (Saddharma), Lankavatara Sutra, Anuttarayoga Tantra (Hevajra Tantra, Chapter 1), Dohacaraksa14, and Dohakosa
 
  clip_image045.gif

4.  Group C: Buddhist History & Archaeology

Supervised by Prof. Dr. K.T.S. Sarao.

  • Paper VI: Comparative history of Buddhism in East Asia (China, Vietnam, Japan) and Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma).
  • Paper VII: Art and Architecture, focusing on the evolution of the Stupa and iconography in schools like Mathura and Sārnāth.
  • Paper VIII (Epigraphy): Learning to read Brahmi script and Ashokan inscriptions, along with the historical geography of holy sites like Nālandā, Bodh Gaya, and
 
  clip_image046.gif

5.  Group D: Buddhist Philosophy

Supervised by Prof. Dr. I. N. Singh. This is widely considered the most intellectually rigorous track, focusing on logic and metaphysics.

  • Paper VI (Abhidharma): A technical analysis of Dharmas (phenomena), Citta (mind), and the 18 Dhatus (elements) across the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika
  • Sasrava (Tainted/With Outflows), Anasrava (Untainted/ Without Outflows), Unconditioned States (Asankhata): Pratisankhya-nirodha (Analytical Cessation/Cessation
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Doha: Song of Realization (Song of Enlightenment); Kosa: Treasury (Abhidharmakośa).

through    Deliberation)15,   Apratisankhya-nirodha    (Non- analytical Cessation/Cessation not through Deliberation).16

The Philosophy of the Vaibhashika School17 and the Sautrantika School.18

•         Paper VII (Madhyamika & Yogacara):

  • Madhyamika: The study of Emptiness (Sunyata) and Dependent
  • Yogacara: The “Three Transformations of Consciousness,” focusing on the Alaya-vijnana (Store- house consciousness).
 
  clip_image016.gif

  • Paper VIII (Logic & Epistemology): General introduction to Buddhist Logic (Pramana), focusing on the revolutionary theories of Dignaga and Dharmakirti regarding perception and Dignaga’s perspectives on Epistemology and Logic (Nyaya).19
  • Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (Sanskrit): Analytical Cessation (Cessation through Deliberation).

Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha-saṃskṛta: A state of cessation or extinction attained through the power of discernment and selection afforded by Right Wisdom (Prajna).

  • Apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (Sanskrit): Non-analytical Cessation (Cessation not through Deliberation).

A state of cessation or extinction that is not achieved through the power of selection by Right Wisdom, but rather manifests simply due to the permanent absence of the necessary conditions for a phenomenon to arise.

  • Vaibhashika (S): The “Commentary”

Also known as the Abhidharma-vaibhashika; a major school belonging to the Sthaviravada (Elder) tradition that adheres to the Mahavibhasha (Great Commentary).

  • Sautrantika (S): The “Sutra-Reference”

Also called the Sankrantivada (School of Transfer). One of the eleven sub- sects of the Sthaviravada, founded by the venerable Kumaralabdha. They emphasize the authority of the Sutras over the Abhidharma.

  • Nyāya (Sanskrit): The Logic School (Nyaya School).
  1. A Brahminical philosophical school established around the 2nd century BCE (though it flourished through later centuries).
  2. One of the four aspects (or characteristics) of the Truth of the Path (Marga-

Summary Table: Specialization Focus

Group

Primary Focus

Key Concepts

A (Pali)

Theravada Canon

Vinaya, Abhidhamma, Path of Purification

B (Sanskrit)

Mahayana & Tantra

Lotus Sūtra, Vajrayana, Bodhisattva Path

C (History)

Archaeology & Art

Brahmi Script, Stupa Archi- tecture, Regional History

D (Philoso- phy)

Logic & Meta- physics

Emptiness, Conscious- ness-Only, Epistemology

The completion of these papers, combined with the language requirement, marks the culmination of the Master’s degree, preparing the student for advanced research at the M.Phil. or Ph.D. level.

Specialization: Groups E and F (The Second Year)

In the final year of the Master’s program, students choosing Group E or F delve into the specific monastic, philosophical, and cultural landscapes of China and Tibet.

Group E: Chinese Buddhism

Supervised by Dr. R. K. Rana. This track explores how Buddhism transformed from an Indian import into a core pillar of Chinese civilization.

Paper VI: The Chinese Buddhist Sangha: Covers the formation of the monastic community and the lives of legendary monk-translators like Kumarajiva, Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing. It also examines the relationship between the Church and State.

Paper VII: Introduction of Buddhism to China: A deep dive into specific schools such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Pure Land.

 
  clip_image048.gif

satya): Path, Appropriate, Practice, and Final Liberation.

It includes the study of the Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only

and the Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch Huineng.

Paper VIII: Influence of Buddhist Culture: Focuses on Buddhist themes in Chinese literature (poetry of Wang Wei and Bai Juyi), socio-economic impacts, and the magnificent art of the cave temples at Dunhuang, Longmen, and Yungang.

 
  clip_image034.gif

Group F: Tibetan Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. Dr. Negi. This group focuses on the preservation of Indian logic and the unique development of Vajrayana in the Himalayas.

  • Paper VI: Tibetan Language and Literature: Includes the study of “Elegant Sayings” by Sakya Pandita and the history of the Sakya school founded in the 12th
  • Paper VII: Philosophy and Logic: Analyzes Nagarjuna’s Ratnavali (Precious Garland) and Dignaga’s Nyaya Pravesa, a foundational text on Buddhist logic.
  • Paper VIII: Tantric Buddhism: An introduction to the complex systems of Tantra, specifically the Hevajra Tantra and the Highest Yoga
 
  clip_image038.gif

Advancing to Higher Research: M.Phil. and Ph.D.

On October 16, 1997, I reached a significant milestone: receiving my admission to the Ph.D. program at the University of Delhi.

The Academic Ladder

The University of Delhi generally follows a strict hierarchy for the Faculty of Arts:

M.A. (Master of Arts): Must achieve a “First Class” (55% or

higher) to potentially skip the next step.

  1. Phil. (Master of Philosophy / “Phó Tiến sĩ”): A bridge program consisting of coursework and a minor thesis.
  2. D. (Doctor of Philosophy): The final research degree.

I was fortunate to be admitted directly to the Ph.D. without having to complete the M.Phil. This “direct entry” is usually reserved for students with high marks in their M.A. However, as more students (including over 40 Vietnamese monastics by 1999) began applying, the department started requiring the M.Phil. for almost everyone due to a shortage of research supervisors. 20

Structure of Research Degrees

The structure for both M.Phil. and Ph.D. students in the early stages is quite similar:

  • Part I (The Coursework): Both Phil. and Ph.D. candidates must pass three core papers. These exams are often held together.

•         Part II (The Research):

  • For Phil., this involves two more papers or a short dissertation.
  • For a D., this is the multi-year process of writing the full doctoral thesis under a supervisor.

During this time, I also took a Certificate Course in Modern Chinese to supplement my research, taking advantage of the diverse language departments available at the university. While the fees were initially very low (around 1,000 Rupees), they were later increased significantly for international students as the university adjusted its policies.

  • Extracts from Ordinance VI-B and Rules and Regulations relating to the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Delhi University, Delhi 110007, pages 1–2.

 2.2.   THE M.PHIL. (MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY) CURRICULUM

The M.Phil. program at the University of Delhi is a rigorous two-year research degree that serves as a critical bridge between a Master’s degree (M.A.) and a Doctorate (Ph.D.). It is divided into two parts: Coursework (Part I) and Research (Part II).

PART I: Coursework

This phase consists of three core papers designed to provide both a comprehensive overview of Buddhist studies and the technical skills required for advanced academic research.

PAPER I: General Survey of Buddhism in India and Abroad (100 points)

This paper ensures that researchers have a multidisciplinary foundation. It is divided into three key sections:

  • Section A (Philology): Focuses on the primary languages of the Buddhist canon.
    • Pali: Grammar, language structure, and a survey of Sutta and post-canonical literature.
    • Sanskrit: The evolution of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) and a survey of Sūtra and Abhidharma

•         Section B (History and Philosophy):

  • History: The origin of Buddhism, the date of the Buddha’s Parinirvana, the role of women and caste, and the decline and modern revival (Neo-Buddhism) in
  • Philosophy: Basic doctrines, major philosophical schools, Buddhist logic, and key concepts like the Paramitas and the Tathagata.
  • Section C (Regional Buddhism): * China: Interaction with

Confucianism and Taoism, Chinese Buddhist literature, and the development of local sects.

Tibet: The introduction of the Dharma, the role of great Masters (Acharyas), and Himalayan Buddhist traditions.

PAPER II: Research Methodology (100 points)

This is perhaps the most vital paper for a future scholar, focusing on the “how” of academic inquiry. It covers:

  • Methods of Investigation: Library research, historical methods, statistical analysis, and field-work techniques (interviews, questionnaires, and observation).
  • Scientific Rigor: Characteristics of scientific research, verification, accumulation of data, and maintaining objectivity while avoiding personal bias and prejudice.
  • The Research Process: How to choose a topic, formulate a hypothesis, define variables, and structure a formal academic report (including proper citations and references).
  • Ethics: The moral responsibility of the scientist toward their subjects and humanity as a whole.

clip_image050.jpg

PAPER III: Practical Academic Writing (100 points)

  • Book Review (50 points): The student must choose a scholarly book and write a critical
  • Survey Article (50 points): A minor essay (20–30 pages) on a topic of the student’s choice, demonstrating their ability to synthesize existing research.
 
  clip_image045.gif

PART II: The Research Thesis

Once the student passes the rigorous exams of Part I, they move on to the research phase.

PAPER IV: The Dissertation (100 points)

 

The student writes a formal Dissertation (approximately 100 pages). Unlike a Ph.D. thesis, which must provide an original contribution to the field, the M.Phil. dissertation focuses on demonstrating a mastery of research methods and a deep understanding of a specific area of study.

PAPER V: Viva-voce (100 points)

The final step is an Oral Defense. The student must present their dissertation before a board of examiners and answer questions to prove their expertise and the validity of their research.

 
  clip_image045.gif

Summary Table: M.Phil. Structure

 

Phase

Component

Requirement

Part I

Paper I

Comprehensive Exam (History, Philosophy, Language)
 

Paper II

Exam on Research Methodology & Ethics
 

Paper III

Book Review and Survey Article

Part II

Paper IV

100-page Research Dissertation
 

Paper V

Viva-Voce (Oral Defense)

This structured approach ensures that when a student finally enters a Ph.D. program, they are not just “well-read,” but are trained researchers capable of handling complex data and maintaining academic integrity.

 
  clip_image045.gif

 2.3.   DOCTORAL (Ph.D.) PROGRAM

2.3.i.

Part I

In the academic system of India, particularly during the period you resided there, the path to a Doctorate often required passing several rigorous preliminary examinations. These were commonly referred to as Paper I, II, and III, which were functionally equivalent to the requirements for a Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) or what was then known as a Pre-PhD (Phó Tiến sĩ) qualification.

Part II

The process of completing a PhD in India is a rigorous journey, requiring the submission of a substantial Thesis (usually exceeding 200 pages) followed by a Viva-Voce (oral defense).

As I reflect on my own academic path, I would like to intro duce several significant Buddhist research works authored by Vietnamese masters in India. India is the sacred land that gave birth to the Buddha; today, following in His footsteps, monastics and lay followers from around the world, especially Vietnamese monks and nuns, return here to research the Dhamma. They combine the Buddha’s message of liberation with modern scientific knowledge to serve both the spiritual and secular worlds, contributing to the “Dharma Jewel” (the treasury of teachings) globally.

clip_image052.jpg

The Art Faculty Library,

where we often sit to conduct our research.

 

2.3.ii.NOTABLE VIETNAMESE PHD DISSERTATIONS IN INDIA

  1. Most Thích Minh Châu (1961)
  • Thesis: The Chinese Madhyama Agama and the Pali Majjhima Nikaya: A Comparative Study
  • Institution: Nālandā University
  • Significance: This masterpiece compares the Chinese Agamas with the Pali Ven. Thích Minh Châu was a pioneer who translated the Pali Canon into Vietnamese and founded the Van Hanh Buddhist University. His thesis has been translated into Vietnamese by the late Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Trí Hải.

2.  Most Ven. Thích Huyền Vi (1972)

  • Thesis: A Critical Study of the Life and Work of Sāriputta

Thera

  • Institution: Nālandā University
  • Significance: A deep exploration of the life of the Buddha’s chief disciple, Sariputta. Ven. Thích Huyền Vi was the Supreme Patriarch of the Linh Son Buddhist Congregation in France, managing over 50 temples worldwide.

3.  Most Ven. Thích Thiện Châu (1990s)

  • Publication: The Literature of the Personalists (Pudgalavādins) of Early Buddhism
  • Background: Having graduated with degrees in Pali and English from Nālandā in the 1960s, his profound research on the “Personalist” school of early Buddhism was published by the prestigious Motilal Banarsidass in Delhi (1996).

4.  Most Ven. Thích Chơn Thiện (1996)

  • Thesis: A Critical Study of the Personality Theory revealed through Paticcasamuppada (On the basis of Pacica Nikaya)
  • Institution: University of Delhi
  • Significance: This work analyzes the Buddhist theory of personality through the lens of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada). Thích Chơn Thiện was instrumental in opening the door for Vietnamese monastics to pursue self-funded studies at the University of Delhi, leading to the thriving community of over 200 Vietnamese students currently studying there.
 
  clip_image045.gif

It is heartening to see this intellectual lineage continue. These works represent not just academic achievement, but a bridge between ancient Indian wisdom and modern Vietnamese Buddhist scholarship.

  1. “Thiền of Vietnamese Buddhism under Trần Dynastry” (1997) và “Phylosophy of the Saddharmapundarika Sūtra: A Conceptual and Doctrial Analysis” (2003) - TĐ.
  1. “A Critical study of the concept of Dhamma as depicted in the Pali Tripitaka” - Bhikṣuṇī LP (1995).21
  2. “A Comparative Study of the Rules for the Bhikṣus and Bodhisattvas as practised in Theravàda and Màhàyana traditions with special reference to Pali Bhikṣu Pàtimokkha sutta and Chinese Brahma-jàla Bodhisattva Pràtimoksa Sūtra” - Bhikṣu GN (1996).
  3. “God, Reincarnation and Ahimsa: A Comparative Study of the Principal Upanisads and the Mahayana Sūtras” - Ven. HC (1996).
  4. “Elitism and the Decline of the Buddhism: A critical

analysis” – Ven. HT (Vietnamesen in Deutschland) (1996).

  1. “The concept of Equality in Buddhism: A Comparative Study of the Pali Canon and the Mahayana Sūtras” - Bhikṣu CM (1996).
  2. “Mettà, Karunà and Ahimsà: A Comparative Study of the Pali PancaNikàyas and the Mahàyàna Sùtras” - Bhikṣu KT (1996).
  3. “A Study of the Concept of Citta as depicted in the Pali Tipitaka”- Bhikṣu MT (1996).
  4. “A Study of the Buddhist View of the World and Man as depicted in the Abhidharmakosa of Vasubandhu” - Bhikṣu ĐV (1996).
  5. “An Analytical Study of the nature’s status of women in the Teachings of Buddha” - Bhikṣuni MH (1996).
  6. “A Critical study of the Puggla as depicted in the Panca Nikaya”- Bhikṣuni TV (1996).
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • From this point forward, the timeline is calculated starting from the year the University Admission was received (not from the time the graduation thesis was submitted).
  1. “The Buddha’s Methodology of Teaching: An Analytical

Study”- Bhikṣuni VL (1996).

  1. “Egalitarianism in Pali Buddhism”- Bhikṣuni HL (1996).
  2. “The Impact of Buddhism upon Vietnamese Literature”- female lay Buddhist LTT (1996).
  3. “An Analytical study of the chief Characteristics of the Buddha‘s Methology of Education as reflected in the Pali Sūtra Pitaka”- Bhikṣu TM (1997).
  4. “A Critical Study of the Concept and Relevance of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva” - Bhikṣu VT (1997).
  5. “AComparative Study of the Doctrine of Saddharmapundrica Sūtra and Pali Nikayas” - Bhikṣu NĐ (1997).
  6. “A Critical study of the Lankavatara Sūtra with Special

reference to Madhyama Agama” - Bhikṣu GT (1997)

  1. “Method of Cariya to attain Enlightenment in the Pali Nikayas and Mahayana Sūtras” - Bhikṣuni HL (1997).“An Analytical study of Similes and metaphors in Pali Tipitaka”

- Bhikṣu LT (1997).

  1. “The concepts of Boddhisattva and Sùnyatà in the Pali Nikàyas and the Mahàyàna sùtras: An Analysis” (1997) và “The Various Dimensions of Buddhism in Different Countries: A Philosophical Study” (2005) -Author Bhikṣuni TN Giới Hương.
  2. “An Analytical Study of the Buddhist Doctrine in the Milindapanho” - Bhikṣu BC (1998).
  3. “Critical Evaluation the Attitude of Buddha to Ecology in the Pitaka and the Nikaya” - Bhikṣu TT (1998).
  4. “The Concept   of    Man   in   Saddharniapundanaka:   A Philosophical Study” - Bhikṣu TQ (1998).
  1. “An Investigation into the Central Philosophy of the Huayan Sūtra” - Bhikṣu GT (1998).
  2. “The Concept of Sunyata in Prajnaparamita Sūtras and Pali Nikayas” - Bhikṣuni ĐA (1998).
  3. “A Study of Budhist concepts of Environment in the Nikayas”

- Bhikṣuni MT (1998).

  1. “Tathagata and Patriachal Meditation: An Analytial Study in the Nikayas and Mahayana Sūtras” - Bhikṣuni TL (1998).
  2. “The Concept of Skillful Means in the Saddharma-pundarika Sūtra: An Analysis” - Bhikṣu NT (1998).

On September 12, 1997, I began my studies for both the M. Phil (Master of Philosophy) and Ph.D. degrees. Since the written examinations for both programs were identical, the classes were conducted together. The primary difference was that while Ph.D. students wrote a full dissertation, M. Phil students were required to complete a book review (briefly summarizing a self- selected book) and a dissertation (an essay on a chosen topic of approximately 100 pages).

On February 26, 2002, after completing my 398-page doctoral thesis, I submitted it to the university. On February 18, 2003, I sat for my oral defense (viva-voce), and on February 22, 2003, together with Ven. TQ, Ven. TĐ, Sister MH, Sister HL, Sister VL, and Sister HL, we donned our red academic regalia to attend the Ph.D. graduation ceremony. Many monks and nuns from the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th cohorts of the Advanced School of Buddhist Studies in Ho Chi Minh City brought fresh flowers and cards to congratulate us on successfully completing our studies in India. It was a beautiful day; spring had arrived in Delhi, and colorful flowers were blooming everywhere as if sharing in our joy.

 
  clip_image053.jpg

CHAPTER 3

PILGRIMAGE TO THE HOLY SITES

 3.1.                                                                           BODH GAYA

O
 

ctober 1, 1996. Another autumn arrived. A group of us, including Bhikṣus Giác Ngôn, Bửu Chánh, and Đồng Mẫn; Bhikṣuṇī Huệ Liên, Vân Liên, Hằng Liên, and myself, along with several lay devotees, planned a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya. We invited Ven. Hạnh Tấn to be our group leader, with Ven. Bửu

Chánh as deputy and I as the treasurer.

Autumn is the ideal season for pilgrimage in India; the weather is mild, requiring neither heavy winter gear nor enduring the blistering summer heat. For every child of the Buddha, visiting the holy sites is a dream, like returning to one’s ancestral home or visiting the birthplace of one’s master.

We departed Delhi by train and arrived early on October 2nd. We stayed at Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu, the first Vietnamese temple in India, founded by Ven. Huyền Diệu. Our 10-day itinerary was so packed that we moved like a commando unit! At each site, we hurriedly donned our robes, chanted a short liturgy, prostrated, snapped a few quick photos, and shouldered our backpacks to move to the next location. Our spiritual reflections were often cut short by our leaders’ urgent calls to stay on schedule.

clip_image055.jpg

Ni sinh TN Giới Hương (đứng ngoài cùng bên phải) cùng quý thầy cô cùng lớp tại Bảo tháp Đại Giác

(Mahabodhi Complex), Bồ Đề Đạo Tràng, bang Bihar, Ấn Độ, vào ngày 02 tháng 10 năm 1996.

 

i. Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu: A Piece of Home

Waking up early at the temple, I stood on the balcony to breathe in the misty morning air. Two Burmese monks, who managed the temple while Ven. Huyền Diệu was in France or overseeing construction in Lumbini, and was already strolling in the garden.

The temple felt unmistakably Vietnamese. Rows of purple bachelor’s buttons, a common flower in Vietnam, lined the pebble paths. From the curved roof of the main hall to the vegetable patches of water spinach (rau muống) and jute (rau đay) in the garden, it was a “miniature Vietnam” tucked away in the heart of India.

ii. The Great Enlightenment Site

After breakfast, we headed to the main archaeological site. Bodh Gaya is located in the state of Bihar, about 10 km from

Gaya station and 1,000 km from Delhi.

The focal point is the Mahabodhi Temple (Great Enlightenment Tower), housing a gilded stone statue of the Buddha in meditation. Behind the tower stands the Bodhi Tree, a lush descendant of the original tree under which Siddhartha Gautama sat for 49 days and achieved Enlightenment in 528 BCE. To the left is the Cankamana (Jeweled Cloister), where stone lotuses mark the spots where flowers supposedly sprang up to support the Buddha’s feet during his walking meditation.

 3.2.  THE JOURNEY OF THE BUDDHA: A HISTORICAL RETROSPECT

Standing at this sacred spot, one cannot help but recall the history of Shakyamuni Buddha:

  1. Birth and Early Life: Born as Prince Siddhartha Gautama in 624 BCE in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal). He was the son of King Suddhodana and Queen
  • The Great Renunciation: Despite a life of luxury and a marriage to Princess Yasodhara, the sight of old age, sickness, and death moved him to seek a solution to human At age 29, shortly after the birth of his son Rahula, he left the palace to become an ascetic.
  • The Search: He studied under renowned teachers like Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, mastering their meditative states but finding they did not lead to ultimate
  • Asceticism: For six years, he practiced extreme self- mortification in the Uruvela forest with five He became so emaciated that he resembled a living skeleton.
  • The Middle Way: Realizing that a withered body cannot support a clear mind, he accepted a bowl of milk rice from

the village girl Sujata. This led his five companions to abandon him, thinking he had given up.

  • Enlightenment: Recovered and determined, he sat beneath the Pipal tree (now the Bodhi Tree) by the Niranjana River and vowed: “Even if my flesh and blood dry up… I will not rise from this seat until I have attained Supreme ”22

b.   The Night of Awakening

During his 49-day meditation, he overcame the temptations of Mara and systematically entered deep states of absorption. On the final night, he attained the Three Knowledges (Tisso Vijja):

  1. Pubbenivasanussati-nana: Knowledge of his own past lives, spanning hundreds and thousands of
  2. Cutupapata-nana: Knowledge of the death and rebirth of all beings according to their karma.
  3. Asavakkhaya-nana: Knowledge of the destruction of all mental defilements, leading to full

As the morning star rose, Siddhartha became the Buddha, the Awakened One.23

c.    Reflections on Health and Humility

By this time in my journey, I had gained 3 kg (reaching 49 kg), a far cry from the 46 kg I weighed when I first arrived in India and nearly fainted during a mandatory blood test for international students.

As we prepared for the next leg of our journey, I watched the local Indian women walking through the fields in their worn saris. Despite their poverty, their faces radiated a simple, vibrant

  • The Middle Length Saying (Majjhima Nikaya), III, London: PTS, 1993, pages 78-80.
  • The Middle Length Saying (Majjhima Nikaya), I, 4, Kinh Sợ hãi khiếp đãm (The Bhayabheravasutta), pages 28-29.

peace. They seemed happy with what nature provided, a lesson in contentment that even we pilgrims were still striving to master.

While prostrating at Bodh Gaya, we not only see historical relics; we also relive the glorious moments when Prince Siddhartha attained the Three Knowledges on the night of his Enlightenment:

d.The Significance of the Three Knowledges

On the eve of His Enlightenment, Mara the Evil One summoned beautiful maidens from his realm to seduce the Bodhisattva in various ways, attempting to thwart His efforts. However, all of Mara’s obstructions failed.

Emerging through the nine meditative states of absorption, with a mind purified, bright, unblemished, free from impurities, malleable, wieldy, steady, and imperturbable, the Bodhisattva directed His mind toward the Three True Knowledges (Tisso Vijjā). As recounted in the Bhayabherava Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya)24, these three insights arose during the three watches of the final night under the Bodhi tree by the Niranjana River:

  1. The First    Watch:    Recollection    of    Past    Lives (Pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa)
 
  clip_image047.gif


“With a mind concentrated, purified, and bright… I directed my mind to the knowledge of recollecting past lives. I remembered manifold past existences: one birth, two, five, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand, through many cycles of cosmic contraction and expansion. I knew: ‘In such a place I had such a name, such a clan, such a caste, such food, such experiences of pleasure and pain, and such a lifespan. Passing away there, I reappeared here.’ Thus, I remembered my manifold past lives in their modes and details.”

  • Majjhima Nikaya, vol I, papes 22-23.

Result: Ignorance was banished, knowledge arose; darkness was banished, light arose.

  1. The Second Watch: The Divine Eye (Cutūpapāta-ñāṇa)

“With a mind concentrated… I directed my mind to the knowledge of the passing away and reappearance of beings. With the divine eye, purified and surpassing that of humans, I saw beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate. I understood how beings fare according to their actions (Kamma): how those who engaged in misconduct of body, speech, and mind... were reborn in states of deprivation; while those who engaged in good conduct… were reborn in a happy destination, even in the heavenly world.”

Result: This second knowledge was attained in the middle watch of the night.

  1. The Third Watch: Destruction of Taints (Āsavakkhaya- ñāṇa)

“With a mind concentrated… I directed my mind to the knowledge of the destruction of the taints. I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is suffering’; ‘This is the origin of suffering’; ‘This is the cessation of suffering’; ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ I knew: ‘These are the taints (cravings/ignorance)’; ‘This is their origin, their cessation, and the path to their cessation.’ When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taints of sensual desire, being, and ignorance. Knowledge arose: ‘Birth is destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming to any state of being.’”

Result: This third knowledge was attained in the final watch of the night.

 

It means under the Bodhi Tree, on the 49th night, his mind transcended through three levels of supreme wisdom:

  • Knowledge of Past Lives (Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa): Attained during the first watch of the He remembered his own countless past existences, from names and lineages to the joys and sorrows of each life, like watching an endless film of reincarnation.
  • Knowledge of Divine Eye (Cutūpapātañāṇa): Attained during the middle watch. He saw clearly the death and rebirth of all sentient beings. He understood that beings circulate through good or evil realms, driven entirely by their own karma.
  • Knowledge of the Destruction of Taints (Āsavakkhayāñāṇa): Attained during the final watch. He thoroughly penetrated the Four Noble Truths (Dukkha - Suffering, $Samudaya$ - Origin, Nirodha

- Cessation, Magga - Path). His mind was completely liberated from all taints (sensual desire, existence, and ignorance). He officially declared: “Birth is ended, the holy life has been fulfilled, what had to be done has been done, there is no more returning to this state.”25

e.The Middle Way (Majjhima Patipada)

The Buddha’s realization opened the Middle Way, which avoids two extremes:

  1. The first extreme: Indulgence in sensual pleasures (lowly, vulgar, and ignoble).
  2. The second extreme: The practice of self-mortification (painful, unworthy, and unprofitable).

He taught that the path leading to tranquility and Nirvana is the

 
  clip_image047.gif


Eightfold Path: Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right

  • Majjhima Nikaya, tập I, page 22-23.

Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.26

 

 3.3.    THE HERITAGE OF BODH GAYA

Today, standing before the Great Stupa and the Bodhi Tree, we feel the power of His declaration:

Through many a birth in Samsara have I wandered in vain,

Seeking the builder of this house of sorrow.

Repeated birth is indeed suffering!

O house-builder (Desire), you are seen!

You shall build no house again.

 

 

All your rafters are broken, Your ridge-pole is shattered.

To the Unconditioned (Nirvana), my mind has gone; Attained is the destruction of all craving. (Dhammapada, Verse 153-154)27

This event not only transformed the Pipal tree into the Bodhi Tree (Tree of Enlightenment) but also turned this land into the spiritual center of the world. Every step we take here is a reminder of the tireless effort of a great being who dared to sacrifice everything to find the light for humanity.

As children of the Buddha coming from afar, despite our hurried schedule, our hearts are filled with boundless reverence for His

  • Vinaya, by I.B.Horner, I, 10-17.
  • Dhammapada (Pāli Text and Translation), Verse 153-154, Ven. Narada Maha Thera, Maha Bodhi In formation and Publi cations Division, Mahabodhi Society of India, Isipatana Deer Park, Sarnath Center, 2000.

transcendent wisdom.

…The Bodhi tree beside the Diamond Throne (Vajrasana) is specifically a Pippala tree, belonging to the same genus as the banyan (Pippali). Long ago, during the Buddha’s lifetime, the tree reached a height of several hundred feet… [but has since diminished] due to being cut down numerous times. Despite repeated cutting and burning, the tree still stands approximately 40–50 feet tall.28 Because the Buddha attained Enlightenment beneath this tree, it is referred to as the tree of Samyak-sambodhi (Perfect Enlightenment) or the Bodhi-druma (Bodhi Tree).

3.3.i.  A Tragic and Heroic History

Following the historical timeline, we see that Bodh Gaya endured epic ups and downs before its powerful revival today. This is not just the story of a stupa, but a journey to protect the “heart” of global Buddhism.

After the Buddha’s Parinirvana, in 259 BCE, Emperor Ashoka visited and paid homage to Bodh Gaya. Since then, for over 1,500 years, Bodh Gaya has attracted millions of Buddhists from around the world. Rajendralal Mitra wrote the following:

“Not only the royal families from the kingdoms of India, but also other nations vied with one another to contribute to making Bodh Gaya increasingly developed and beautiful. Every spot where the Buddha stopped or accepted offerings of food, every pond where He bathed or washed His robes, every stretch of road He walked, or the places where He once practiced austerities and meditation, all were once carved into stone; and nothing can ever erase those historical records, those wondrous memories.” 29

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • 3 feet = 1 yard (yd) = 914 meters (English-Vietnamese Dictionary, Center for Social Sciences and Humanities & National University, Ho Chi Minh City, 1993, p. 2064).
  • C. Ahir., Buddhist Shrines in India, Delhi, 1986, p. 8.

The Period of Decline and Historical Upheaval

After the era of Master Xuanzang, Bodh Gaya gradually entered centuries of turbulence:

  • Burmese Patronage (11th – 15th Century): As Buddhism in India began to wane, the Burmese played a vital role, restoring the Great Stupa at least three times. However, by the end of the 15th century, the site was largely
  • Terror and Desolation (13th Century): In 1234, the Tibetan monk Dharmasvāmin witnessed a heartbreaking scene: monastics were forced to flee due to the Turkish invasion. The main gate of the stupa was sealed with bricks to protect the Buddha statue inside from destruction.
  • Falling into Non-Buddhist Hands (1590): A Hindu monk (Gosain Giri) occupied the site and built a Hindu temple For centuries afterward, the sacred stupa remained under the management of the Mahant (Hindu) religious order, while the architecture steadily deteriorated.

3.3.ii.   Period of Decline and Historical Upheaval

Following the era of Master Xuanzang, Bodh Gaya gradually entered centuries of turbulence.

The last Indian Buddhist king to contribute to the restoration of the Mahabodhi Temple was King Rāja Aśoka-Balla from the Siwalik range in the Punjab state. Dharmasvāmin, a Tibetan monk who visited the holy site in 1234, found the area in a state of desolation and recorded the following in his travelogue:

“At that time, only four monks remained at the sacred temple. One monk said, ‘It is truly tragic; all the monks have fled due to the terror of the Turkish (Turushka) army.’ They had sealed the main gate in front of the Mahabodhi Temple with bricks and plaster. Nearby, they had erected another image to replace the

 

statue of the Buddha.”30

  • Burmese Patronage (11th – 15th Century): As Buddhism in India began to wane, the Burmese played a vital role in restoring the Great Stupa at least three times. However, by the end of the 15th century, the site was slowly
  • Terror and Desolation (13th Century): In 1234, the Tibetan monk Dharmasvāmin witnessed a heartbreaking scene: monastics were forced to flee due to the Turkish The stupa’s gate was sealed with bricks to protect the Buddha statue within from destruction.
  • Occupancy by Non-Buddhists (1590): A Hindu monk (Gosain Giri) occupied the site and built a Hindu temple. For many centuries thereafter, the sacred stupa remained under the control of the Mahant (Hindu) religious order, while the architecture continued to deteriorate.

3.3.iii.  The Campaign to Reclaim the Holy Site

A historical turning point arrived in the late 19th century, inextricably linked to the name of Anagarika Dharmapala:

  • Vow of Restoration (1891): Witnessing the Great Stupa in a state of abandonment and misuse, Dharmapala founded the Mahabodhi Society on May 31, 1891, to mobilize international Buddhist support and reclaim management rights.
  • Government Intervention (1880): Prior to this, recognizing that previous Burmese restorations were technically inaccurate, the Indian government appointed J. D. Beglar, along with advisors such as Cunningham, to restore the Great Stupa to the historical appearance we see today.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The 1949 Act: After India gained independence, the persistent struggle of Buddhists finally achieved legal
  • C. Ahir., Buddhist Shrines in India, Delhi, 1986, p 16.

results. The Bihar state government enacted the Bodh Gaya Temple Management Act, establishing a joint management committee (comprised of both Buddhist and Hindu representatives).

3.3.iv.  A Powerful Revival

In 1956, on the occasion of Buddha Jayanti (the 2,500th Anniversary of the Buddha’s Birth), Bodh Gaya officially entered an era of revival:

  • International Center: A series of temples from various nations, including Vietnam, Japan, Thailand, and Tibet, were constructed in the surrounding area, creating a “United Nations” of Buddhism.
  • Recognition: The site became a World Heritage destination, attracting millions of people from across all continents to study and practice meditation.

 3.4.    EXISTING RELICS AT BODH GAYA

3.4.i.  MAHABODHI STUPA

The Mahabodhi Temple is not only an architectural masterpiece but also a symbol of great enlightenment. With its pyramid-like structure soaring 52m, the tower stands as a spiritual lighthouse in the heart of Bihar.

clip_image057.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (far left) pictured with her classmates

at the Mahabodhi Stupa, which stands 52 meters high, on October 02, 1996.

 

Structure and Art

  • Design: The temple has a solid square base (15m on each side). At the four corners sit four symmetrical, smaller towers, creating a harmonious and imposing ensemble.
  • System of Mudras (Hand Gestures): The Buddha statues along the temple walls display characteristic hand gestures that help practitioners understand different stages of the Buddha’s life:
    • Bhumisparsha Mudra (Earth-Touching Gesture): The hand touches the earth, bearing witness to his
  • Dharmacakra Mudra    (Turning    the    Wheel    of Dharma): Symbolizing the teaching of the

◇               Abhaya      Mudra      (Gesture     of      Fearlessness):

Representing protection and peace.

Inside the Main Hall

In the rear hall of the lower level, you will encounter the most sacred gilded Buddha statue. The statue faces East, toward the rising sun, the exact position of Prince Siddhartha when he triumphed over the forces of Mara. This statue, offered by the Dalai Lama, reflects profound Tibetan artistic influence and radiates an aura of infinite peace.

3.4.ii.   THE BODHI TREE

Located directly behind the Great Stupa is the Bodhi Tree (Ficus religiosa) 31, also known as the “Tree of Enlightenment.” It stands as a living witness to the greatest event in human history 2,600 years ago.32

•         Spiritual Significance

The Bodhi Tree is more than just a plant; it is a symbol of wisdom. After his awakening, the Buddha stood gazing at this tree for an entire week with infinite gratitude. He taught that Bodh Gaya is one of the four holy places that can help a practitioner achieve a favorable rebirth if visited with a heart of sincere devotion.

In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (Great Discourse on the

      Buddha’s Extinguishment) of the Dīgha Nikāya,33 the

  • To expand on the subject of the Bodhi tree, there is an article by the author Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Chapter 6.6: History of the Bodhi Tree at Bodhgaya in this book “The Dawn of India”. Please read it in next three
  • Pategama Gnanagama, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, p. 45; Dharmadoot, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Sarnath-2000.
  • Digha Nikaya, II, Pāli Text Society, 1886, p. 141.

ahathera Narada, The Buddha and His Teaching, Colombo, 1973, p. 257- 258.

Buddha declared to Ānanda that Bodh Gaya, the site of the Bodhi tree, is one of the four holy places that a person of faith should visit with devotion and reverence. He further taught: “Whoever dies with a heart of faith while on pilgrimage to these places will be reborn in a realm of happiness.”

The sanctity of the Bodhi tree is regarded as a symbol of enlightenment and the living embodiment of the Buddha himself.

The Origin of the Bodhi Tree at Jetavana

On one occasion, while disciples were visiting to pay their respects at the Jetavana Monastery in Sāvatthī, the wealthy benefactor Anāthapiṇḍika spoke with Ānanda. He requested that a sacred shrine be established where people could offer incense, flowers, and fruit during the periods when the Buddha was absent from the monastery.

In response to this request, a sapling was taken from the original Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and planted at the gateway of the Jetavana Monastery. To imbue the tree with further spiritual significance:

  • Consecration: The Buddha sat in meditation beneath this specific tree for an entire
  • Legacy: From that moment forward, this tree became a primary object of worship and veneration for the
  • The Kalinga-Bodhi Jātaka34 and the Kosiya Jātaka35 relate that during the Buddha’s lifetime, the Bodhi tree was deeply respected and venerated as the Buddha The Bodhi tree is regarded as one of the three sacred objects of worship, which include:
  • Buddha Relics (Sariraka)
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Jataka, IV, p. 228.
  • Jataka, II, p. 321.
  • Stupas (Cetiya)
  • Shrines or Image Houses (Paṭimaghara)

While all three objects are held in equal esteem, the Buddha relics are still considered the most noble and supreme among them.

•         A Turbulent History

  • The Bodhi Tree we see today is not the original tree from the Buddha’s time, yet it carries the direct lineage of the ancient tree:

Moving into the 8th and 9th centuries (roughly 700–800 CE), under the Buddhist Pala Dynasty, King Pūrṇavarman replanted the Bodhi tree at the beginning of his reign, around 813 CE. From then on, the tree grew undisturbed until the devastating invasion of the Muslim army led by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1201, during which the Bodhi tree was cut down and burned along with the sacred Great Stupa.

Sharing the same turbulent fate as Buddhist history, the Bodhi tree has been felled and destroyed countless times—by the impermanence of natural disasters, by human hands, and by calculated attempts to erase the traces of Enlightenment. Yet, miraculously, the seeds of Bodhi have always found a way to sprout and flourish. Rebirth always began, replacing the seeds of destruction, and the tree would grow lush and green once more.

This is clearly evidenced by the records of Francis Buchanan, who visited Bodh Gaya in 1811 and described the holy site in his work as follows: “The Bodhi tree is full of vigor and cannot be more than 100 years old. However, a similar tree existed in this same spot when the Great Stupa was first completed.”36

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Eastern India, 1, p. 76; Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Buddha Gaya, 1998, p. 1-3.

However, in December 1862, Alexander Cunningham, the famous British archaeologist who made immense, if not the primary, contributions to excavating Buddhist ruins not only at Bodh Gaya but across many other Buddhist holy sites throughout India, remarked, “The Bodhi tree is very much decayed; the trunk leans towards the west, with three large branches still green, but the other branches are yellow and rotten.”37

  • Heritage: According to Alexander Cunningham, this tree is approximately the 20th generation descendant of the original root.
  • Surviving Adversity: The tree was destroyed several times by non-Buddhist kings (such as King Sasanka in the 6th century). However, new shoots always sprouted from the old stump, or saplings were brought back from Sri Lanka (where a branch of the original had been sent) to be

•         The Ananda Bodhi Tree

  • A fascinating detail is the Bodhi Tree at Jetavana Monastery (Sāvatthī). It was grown from a sapling of the original tree at Bodh The Buddha meditated under that young tree to bless it, providing a sacred object for followers to venerate whenever he was away from the monastery. This demonstrates how the Bodhi Tree became a “sacred object” representing the physical presence of the Blessed One.

•         The Bodhi Tree through the Eyes of Master Xuanzang

  • According to the 7th-century chronicles of Master Xuanzang, the Bodhi Tree was enclosed within a sturdy brick wall with a circumference of about 500 steps. He described a scene resembling a fairyland on earth: exotic flowers in full bloom and climbing vines clinging tightly to the ancient trunk, creating a lush green carpet that blanketed
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Archaeological Survey, 1; Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India,Buddha Gaya, 1998, p. 1-3.

the holy site.

  • Miraculous Characteristics: The leaves of the Bodhi Tree remain glossy and green throughout the year, never withering in winter or summer. However, legend has it that on the day the Buddha entered Nirvana, the leaves suddenly withered and fell, only to turn lush again shortly after, as if in a moment of global empathy.
  • Devotion: Thousands of people from all over gathered here, pouring fresh milk and sandalwood water onto the roots, lighting candles, and hanging vibrant prayer flags, creating an extraordinarily magnificent spiritual

Ups and Downs and the Miraculous Revival

The history of the Bodhi Tree is a series of tragic events interwoven with legendary colors of resilience and life:

•         The Era of King Ashoka (Aśoka):

Aśoka Avadāna (A-dục Vương Truyện): A 2nd-century CE Sanskrit text that chronicles the life and legends of Emperor Ashoka. It is a key source for understanding the legendary aspects of the Mauryan Empire.

Tishya Rakshita (Đế Di La Sát):Ashoka’s last queen.According to legend, she became jealous of the time the King spent at the Bodhi tree, mistakenly believing “Bodhi” was another woman or a rival for his affection. Out of spite, she had a sorceress cast a spell or use poisonous thorns to wither the tree.38

Despite her attempts to destroy it, the tree was miraculously revived (often described as being bathed in scented milk and prayers), symbolizing the indestructible nature of the Dharma.

 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Before converting to Buddhism, it was Aśoka King ordered the tree to be cut down and burned to the roots to destroy all
  • Sree Babu Rajendra Lal’s Buđha Gaya, 97; Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Buddha Gaya, 1998, p. 1-3.

traces of the faith. Miraculously, a vibrant new shoot sprang forth from the ashes. Upon his awakening, he bathed the roots in fragrant milk, causing the tree to grow strong again overnight. Later, out of jealousy over the King’s devotion, Queen Tishya Rakshita secretly cut the tree down in the dead of night, yet a miracle once again brought it back to life.39

King Ashoka sent his daughter, the princess who later ordained as Bhikṣuṇī Sanghamittā, to take a southern branch of the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. It was planted at Anurādhapura during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa. This branch of the Bodhi tree remains lush and green to this day.

Meanwhile, the original Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya was destroyed multiple times throughout later eras. Consequently, the Bodhi tree planted in the city of Anurādhapura has been historically declared the oldest living human-planted tree40 in the world. Regarding the facts of the Bodhi trees at Bodh Gaya and Sri Lanka, the Maha Bodhi (Buddha Gaya) magazine, July 1903 issue, noted:

“The Bodhi tree under which the Blessed One sat in meditation no longer exists. That tree was destroyed in 1874 (Buddhist Era 2418). A branch of this tree was brought by Bhikṣuṇī Sanghamittā, daughter of King Ashoka, to be planted in the capital of Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka. When the original tree was destroyed in 1874, a new sapling grew, and that is the lush Bodhi tree currently at Bodh Gaya. The tree is growing very well, with thick, verdant foliage.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


We can also find the earliest precious records of the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya after the Buddha’s Parinirvāṇa through the

  • Please read vol. III, hmh. XXXIII v cc hmh. XX & LIV: Bhaarhut; A. Cunningham, Thp Bhaarhut [The Stupa of Bhaarhut], ấn bản mới, Ấn Độ, 1962, XXX; A. K. Coomaraswamy, Nghệ Thuật Điu Khắc tại Bhohgaya [La Sculpture de Bodhgaya], Paris, 1935, hmh. LX
  • Symbol and Ritual in Religion with special Reference to Buddhism in Srilanka, D. Jayasekara; The Maha Bodhi Journal, Calcata, 9/1992, p.54.

travelogues of Chinese pilgrims.

Faxian visited Bodh Gaya around the year 400. In his pilgrimage record, he described the site as follows:

“Śramaṇa Gautama went forward until he came beneath the Bodhi tree, where he spread kusha grass and sat facing East. He began to realize the fruit of peaceful liberation throughout seven days…”41

King Sasanka (7th Century): Another non-Buddhist monarch attempted to destroy the tree’s very foundations by burning it and pouring sugarcane juice over the roots. Despite this, he could not extinguish the latent life force of the sacred tree.

The Modern Era: Archeologist Alexander Cunningham noted that the old tree had become completely decayed and was swept away during a massive storm in 1876. Fortunately, fallen seeds germinated at the exact same location, ensuring the continuity of the sacred lineage.

The Bodhi Tree in Contemporary Life

The current Bodhi Tree (believed to be over 100 years old) remains lush throughout all four seasons, its vibrant green leaves casting a protective shadow over the Vajrasana.

  • Spiritual Gifts: During the rainy season, many Bodhi leaves fall. Monks, nuns, and Buddhists often gather these leaves and soak them in water to extract the transparent Afterward, they paint images of the Buddha’s head or silhouette onto the leaf veins to give as gifts or sell to pilgrims as mementos (approximately 10 Rupees for a set of 10 leaves).
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Pilgrimage Rituals: The base of the tree is solemnly wrapped in saffron-colored cloth and protected by a cement There are always resident monks on hand to guide
  • Records of the Western World, Samuel Beal, vol. 1, p. 11.

followers in prostrating, chanting, and practicing meditation in the serene space.

“Turning toward the Bodhi Tree, I sincerely prostrate in reverence. The Blessed One, the Teacher of gods and men, respected and venerated this Bodhi Tree; I too turn toward this supreme Bodhi Tree and sincerely prostrate!”42

 

 
  clip_image059.jpg

 

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (far left) and her classmates

under the sacred Bodhi tree, October 02 1996.

 

3.4.iii.         SECRETS BENEATH THE EARTH: THE VAJRASANA (DIAMOND THRONE)

 
  clip_image047.gif


In 1880, Cunningham43 conducted a pivotal excavation behind the wall of the Great Stupa. He discovered:

  • Dipak Barua, Buddha Gaya Temple Its History, Buddha Gaya Temple Management Committee, Buddha Gaya, 1981, p. 6-7.
  • K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, New York, 1965, p. 33, cf. figs. 46, 55, 70. Bodhighara is a term referring to shrines in the earliest texts. The Mahavamsa mentions a sacred Bodhi-tree shrine at Anuradhapura (Mahavamsa, Chapter VI, verses 103, 126). This Bodhighara was likely modeled after the ancient structures built at Bodh Gaya. Although traces of epigraphic and architectural evidence have been found (University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XVI, 1958, pp. 1–5) and still exist at Bodh Gaya, the only
  • The Vajrasana Foundation: Crafted from granite, standing approximately 3 feet high and 30 feet
  • Ancient Root Traces: Two large roots from the former tree were found still existing deep underground, proving the unbroken succession of tree generations at this specific

According to scientists and archeologists, because the Bodhi Tree is a fast-growing species with a relatively short lifespan, the succession from seeds has occurred approximately 12 to 20 times (representing the “great-great-grandchildren” of the original root) from the time of the Buddha to the present day.

The Diamond Throne Vajrasana– The Ultimate Point of the Universe

Lying humbly yet powerfully between the Mahabodhi Temple and the Bodhi Tree, the Vajrasana is the sacred throne where Prince Siddhartha sat when he triumphed over Mara and attained Supreme Enlightenment.

  • Structure: Discovered during the 1881 restoration, the throne is made of gold-plated bronze (approximately), featuring exquisitely intricate carvings.
  • Spiritual Stature: According to the records of Master Xuanzang, the Vajrasana appeared when the earth was first formed, piercing deep into the ground down to the “Golden Wheel” (the Earth’s foundation). It is considered the only place on earth sturdy enough to withstand the spiritual energy of a Buddha’s All one thousand Buddhas of this “Fortunate Aeon” (Bhadrakalpa) will achieve enlightenment at this exact spot.
 
  clip_image060.gif

typical example of a Bodhighara that almost entirely preserves the architecture of the early period (6th or 7th century CE) was found at Nillakgama (Ceylon). This is considered the sole surviving monument of its kind today (ASCAR, 1954, p. 25 ff.; History of Ceylon, University of Ceylon Publication, Vol. I, Part I, pl. XVII).

In his travelogue, Xuanzang wrote:

“Traveling southwest from the summit of Mount Pragbodhi for about 14–15 li, we arrive at the Bodhi tree. It is surrounded by a tall, solid brick wall. The enclosure is rectangular, long from east to west and short from north to south, with a circumference of approximately 500 paces...

At the very center of the walled enclosure is the Diamond Throne (Vajrasana), where the Buddha sat in meditation. In ancient times, when the Auspicious Aeon (Bhadrakalpa) reached fulfillment, and the earth was formed, this Diamond Throne appeared. It is situated at the exact center of the universe, piercing deep into the Golden Wheel and extending far into the earth. It is composed of a diamond. Its circumference is about 100 paces. Upon this throne, the one thousand Buddhas of the Auspicious Aeon have sat and entered the ‘Diamond-like Samadhi’ (Vajra-samadhi); for this reason, the site is called the Diamond Throne. As this is the place where the Buddha attained Enlightenment, it is also known as Bodh Gaya.”44

3.4.iv.            THE SEVEN-WEEK JOURNEY AFTER ENLIGHTENMENT

At Bodh Gaya, every step you take touches a vestige of the first 49 days of bliss of the Blessed One:

Week

Location         / Monument

Spiritual Significance

1st

The Bodhi Tree

The Buddha sat in silence, experi- encing the joy of absolute libera- tion.
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Samuel beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Delhi, 1994, pp. 119-135; Xứ Phật Tình quê, vol I, Thích Hạnh Nguyện aka Vô Thức, 1996, 105-111.

Week

Location         / Monument

Spiritual Significance

2nd

Animesalocana Stupa

The Buddha stood gazing at the Bodhi Tree for 7 days without blinking to express his gratitude. This white stupa is now where Ti- betan monks often chant the Avat- amsaka Sūtra.

3rd

Chankramana Path

The “Sacred Path” located north of the main stupa. A 16m stone slab is carved with 18 lotus flowers, sym- bolizing the Buddha’s pure foot- steps during walking meditation.

4th

Ratnagraha Shrine

A small roofless shrine. Here, as He meditated, His body radiated a five-colored halo (Blue, Yellow,

Red, White, Orange)—the origin of the modern Buddhist Flag.

5th

Ajapala Ni- grodha Tree

Where He enlightened a conceited Brahmin. Today, only a commemo- rative stone pillar remains near the temple gate to mark this location.

6th

Mucalinda Lake

Located 1.6km from the main stu- pa. The image of the serpent king coiled around the Buddha to protect Him from the rain amidst a silent lotus pond is one of the most mov- ing sights for Buddhists.

7th

Rajayatana Tree

The final week. He accepted milk rice from two merchants, Tapussa and Bhallika—the first lay disciples to take refuge in the Two Jewels (Buddha and Dharma).

clip_image062.jpg

Cankamana (Cloister Walk): The lord buddha spent the third week here walking up and down in meditation. On the platform lotuses indicate the places where the lord’s feet rested while walking. Photo: in October 02 1996.

 

3.5.    OTHER RELICS AND SURROUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE MAHABODHI TEMPLE

COMPLEX

Countless stupas of various sizes surround the Mahabodhi Temple, enhancing its majestic presence. Many of these were built by kings and high-ranking officials to commemorate the Buddha’s grace or as offerings of gratitude after accomplishing great tasks.

However, within the Mahabodhi complex, there are two non- Buddhist structures located immediately to the right and left of the main entrance:

  • To the right: A long, low structure housing five statues, which is actually a temple dedicated to the Hindu deity

Shiva. Hindu devotees have placed a Buddha statue there as well to draw the attention of pilgrims.

  • To the left: A relatively large structure with a pointed spire, which is the memorial stupa for the second abbot of the Hindu temple situated opposite the Mahabodhi

Other notable features include:

  • Stone Railings: An ancient stone fence encircling the temple, of which only a few segments remain relatively
  • Panca Pandava Temple: A white-painted structure to the left of the entrance, featuring five Bodhisattva
  • The Large Pond: Located south of the main temple, with an Ashokan Pillar standing near its entrance.
  • Ashokan Pillars: Three small pillars are erected near the entrance of the Mahabodhi Temple, and one large pillar stands before the Mucalinda

 3.6.    THE NIRANJANA RIVER (Nairañjanā)

Located approximately 180 meters east of the Mahabodhi Temple, this river is known today as the Lilajan River. It is nearly 1 km wide and is where the Buddha bathed before proceeding to the Bodhi Tree. The water flow is seasonal:

In August: The water is very shallow, making it easy to wade across to Sujata’s village; the water is cool with varying depths.

During the rainy season: The current is swift and voluminous. The government has now constructed a large bridge across the river to facilitate travel and transportation.

 3.7.    SUJĀTĀ-KUṬI

This is the site where Sujata offered the milk rice. Crossing the Niranjana River and traveling south for about 2 km brings you to the village of Bakraur. Here, a small shrine houses images of the Buddha in meditation and the milkmaid Sujata offering him sustenance, marking the exact spot where the ascetic Gautama accepted the offering.

3.8.                                    THE FOREST OF ASCETICISM

(Khổ Hạnh Lâm)

From the Niranjana River, a 30-minute drive toward Gaya leads to Bakraur village, followed by a one-hour trek to Pragbodhi Hill. This is where the Buddha left his five companions of ascetic practice before entering meditation under the Bodhi Tree.

He resided in the Dungeswari Cave for a period of time. This hill, now called Dhongra, is located about 1.6 km (1 mile) northeast of Bakraur village, running along the Niranjana River. Legend has it that while the Buddha was staying in this cave, deities informed him that this was not a suitable place to achieve enlightenment.

Today, a Tibetan temple stands on the hill. Pilgrims who make the climb are often warmly welcomed by the monks with tea and snacks, providing a place to rest and recover before visiting the cave.

clip_image064.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương meditation

on the Buddha’s Asceticism. Photo: October 02, 1996.

 

 

 3.9.    MODERN STRUCTURES AND INTERNATIONAL TEMPLES

a. BODH GAYA MUSEUM

Located about 1 km west of the Mahabodhi Temple, near the Thai Temple, this museum displays Buddha statues, ritual items, and artifacts excavated by archaeologists in the Bodh Gaya area. Many statues are headless or partially destroyed, bearing the visible scars of past periods of devastation. Most artifacts reflect carving styles from approximately the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE.

b. THE INDIAN BUDDHIST TEMPLE (The Maha Bodhi

Mahavihar)

Located directly opposite the Mahabodhi Temple, this serves as the headquarters for the Bodh Gaya Temple Management

 

Committee. Established in 1952, the committee consists of eight members: four Hindu and four Buddhist, with the District Magistrate of Gaya serving as Chairman. The building resembles a town hall more than a religious structure. It houses a library and guest rooms, and the local Indian monks here take turns stationed at the Mahabodhi Temple and the Bodhi Tree to guide pilgrims.

c.Mahabodhi Society

Founded by Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka in 1891, this international organization has branches in the US, UK, Japan, and beyond. Its Bodh Gaya headquarters functions as a meditation center, a charity hub providing aid and medical care to the village, and an affordable guest house for pilgrims.

d.A    GLOBAL    TAPESTRY:   THE    INTERNATIONAL TEMPLES

Bodh Gaya has become a “United Nations of Buddhism,” with various nations building temples that reflect their unique architectural and cultural heritage:

  • Chinese and Taiwanese Temples: Located southwest of the stupa, these are spacious and offer modern amenities, including vegetarian restaurants.
  • Tibetan Temples: * Gelukpa Sect: Built in 1983, featuring vibrant red and gold interiors with thousands of Buddha It houses a “Dharma Wheel” and a private suite for the Dalai Lama.
    • Karmapa Sect: Located about 1 km from the stupa, reportedly funded by a $2 million donation from a Middle Eastern oil monarch whose illness was cured by the 16th Karmapa.
    • Shechen Tennyi Dargyeling: A large complex that serves as a Buddhist school for Tibetan
  • Japanese Temples: * Indosan Nipponji: Known for its pristine, polished floors and unique wooden
    • Daijokoyo (Vajrayana): Famous for its massive bronze bell that rings out across the holy site every morning at 5:00
  • The Great Buddha Statue: Standing 14–15 meters tall near the Japanese temple, this massive stone statue is flanked by life-sized sculptures of the Buddha’s ten great
  • Thai Temple: Built by the Thai Royal Family, it features a striking gold-tiled roof and a golden Buddha statue valued at $66,000.
  • Bhutanese Temple: Intricately carved and brightly colored, featuring detailed murals of the Buddha’s
  • South Korean Temple: Located opposite the Vietnamese Temple, reflecting Korean Buddhist
  • The Root Institute: Founded by Western disciples of Zopa Rinpoche, this quiet retreat center offers meditation halls, private retreat huts, and extensive medical charity work.
  • Burmese Temple: Built in 1874 by King Mindon, this historic temple sits near the Niranjana River and offers a large campus for pilgrims.

e.VIETNAMESE FOOTPRINTS IN BODH GAYA

Currently, there are two prominent Vietnamese temples that serve as heartwarming refuges for pilgrims far from home:

1.  Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu (Vietnam Buddhist Temple)

The first Vietnamese temple on Indian soil, founded by Venerable Huyen Dieu (groundbreaking in 1987). It is situated amidst peaceful fields, approximately 2 km from the Mahabodhi Temple.

  • Architecture: The main hall stands 24 m tall with three Notably, the Avalokiteśvara Pavilion is modeled after the One Pillar Pagoda, deeply reflecting Vietnamese national identity.
  • Ten Thousand Buddhas Stupa: Standing 22 m high, it enshrines Buddha relics and 10,000 Buddha statues.
  • Atmosphere: Although parts are still under construction, Vietnamese Buddhists find a “home away from home” here, even sharing simple, traditional meals like canh chua lá giang (sour soup) and sautéed water spinach cooked by their own hands.

2.  Vien Giac Institute of Buddhist Education

Founded by Venerable Nhu Dien (inaugurated in 2002). This temple is spacious and modern, serving as a frequent venue for retreats and academic courses for monastics and international practitioners.

The Meaning of This Gathering

This assembly of international temples proves that Bodh Gaya is truly the “Heart of the Buddhist World.” Regardless of where you come from or what language you speak, you can find a space for practice that feels like home. This spiritual diversity is a testament to the global effort to preserve the site where enlightenment first dawned.

 3.10.    REFLECTIONS FROM THE JOURNEY

Prostrating at the Vajrasana throne, Bodhi tree, and walking through the Seven Weeks is not merely a tour of ancient relics; it is an opportunity to “strengthen your spiritual power.” Standing before the stone lotuses of the walking path or looking at the still waters of Mucalinda Lake, you will feel an invisible,

purifying energy washing over your inner self, helping you return to your own nature of enlightenment.

After the seventh week, the Buddha decided to leave Bodh Gaya and head toward Sārnāth (Deer Park), the place where He would set the first Wheel of Dharma in motion.

3.2. RAJGIR (Rājagṛha)

3.2.1.  OVERVIEW HISTORY OF RAJGIR

Rajgir, located southeast of Patna, is one of India’s most ancient cities. Historically, it was known by various names such as Vasumatī, Girivraja (“City surrounded by mountains”), and Kuśāgrapura (“City of fragrant grass”).45 Master Xuanzang explained that it was called the “City of Fragrant Grass/Reed” because the lush green meadows surrounding the city emitted a sweet fragrance.46

The Five Mountains

The city is naturally fortified by a valley of five hills.47 In Pali scriptures, these are listed as:

1.      Vaibhāra

 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Pāṇḍara
  • Xem C.Law, Rājagṛha in Ancient Literature, Meṃ Arcḥ Arcḥ. Surv. Ind., no. 58, Delhi, 1938; D. N. Sen, Rajgir and Its Neighbourhood, Patna, 1924; F.E.Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, London, 1922; N.L.Dey, Dictionary of Ancient Geography, Calcutta, 1972, s.v. Rājagṛha and Girivraja.;
  1. Legge, Travels of Fa-hien, Oxford, 1886, pp. 80-86; S.Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, London, 1906, I I, pp. 149 ff.; T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, London, 1905, II, pp. 148ff.; Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi, Rājagṛha Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1987, p.2.
  • Because the “reed” originates from khas (Andropogon muricatus ), which grows abundantly nearby.
  • The corresponding Pāli words are: Vebhāra, Paṇḍava, Vepulla, Gijjhakūṭa, and Isigili.

3.      Vaipulya

  1. Gijjhakūṭa (Vulture Peak)

5.      Ṛishigiri

Rajagṛha (Vương-xá) was an important center of Buddhism, and the Buddha spent many years living here. This place is associated with numerous sutras and many significant events in his life. Although he stayed in various locations within Rajagṛha, his favorite remained Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa). He would often stand atop the mountain, contemplating the city of Rajagṛha and the surrounding landscape below, exclaiming:

“Delightful is Rājagṛha! Delightful is Gṛdhrakūṭa!

Delightful is the Gautama-nyagrodha tree! Delightful is the Robbers’ Cliff (Caura-prapāta)!

Delightful is the Saptaparṇī cave on Mount Vaibhāra! Delightful is Kālasiḷā on Mount R̥ ṣigiri!

Delightful is the Snake’s Hood Crag (Sarpa-sauṇḍika-prāgbhāra) in the Cool Forest (Śītavana)!

Delightful is the Tapoda Monastery (Tapodārāma)!

Delightful is the Squirrels’ Feeding Ground at the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)!

Delightful is Jīvaka’s Mango Grove! Delightful is Mardakukṣi!”48

3.2.2.   SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THE BUDDHA’S LIFE IN RAJGIR

Rajgir was a primary center for the Buddha’s ministry, where he spent many years and seasons.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Dīgha-Nikay , Pāli Text Soc., II, London, 1903, pp. 116-7.

Conversion of the Kassapa Brothers: The Buddha converted the three fire-worshipping brothers (Uruvela, Nadi, and Gaya Kassapa) along with their 1,000 disciples.

Royal Patronage: King Bimbisāra of Magadha became a devoted disciple and offered the Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) as the first Buddhist monastery.

The Chief Disciples: It was here that Sāriputta and Moggallāna joined the Sangha after hearing a verse on the Law of Dependent Origination.

The First Council: After the Buddha’s Parinirvana, King Ajātaśatru supported 500 Arahants in the first gathering to systemize the Buddhist scriptures at the Saptaparṇī Cave.

 
  clip_image045.gif

The Tragedy of King Ajātaśatru and Bimbisāra

Rajgir is the setting for the poignant story of filial betrayal and ultimate redemption:

  • The Conspiracy: Influenced by the Buddha’s jealous cousin Devadatta, Prince Ajātaśatru imprisoned and starved his father, King Bimbisāra.
  • The Realization: Only after becoming a father himself did Ajātaśatru realize the depth of parental love. His mother, Queen Vaidehi, told him how Bimbisāra had once bitten his own finger to give the young prince blood to suck when he was
  • Remorse: Overwhelmed by guilt, the King sought refuge in the Buddha’s teachings and spent the rest of his life as a devoted supporter of the

Historical Sites According to Master Buddhaghosa and Xuanzang

 

According to the records of Buddhaghosa,49 Rajgir (Rājagaha) had a population of approximately 18,000,000 people, divided equally between the inner city (antar-nagara) and the outer city (bahir-nagara). The city featured 32 major gates and 64 minor gates.

When Master Xuanzang visited in the 7th century, he documented several key landmarks:

  • Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa): The Buddha’s favorite Xuanzang noted the “Fragrance Chamber” (Mūlagandhakuṭī) where the Buddha stayed, facing East.
  • The Stepping Down Site: A small stupa marking where King Bimbisāra would step down from his carriage to walk up the mountain to meet the Buddha.
  • The Stone for Drying Robes: A flat rock near the summit where the Buddha allegedly dried his robes, leaving impressions in the stone.
  • Devadatta’s Rock: A 45-foot-high rock from which Devadatta attempted to kill the Buddha by rolling a boulder

Eventually, the capital was moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern Patna) due to its fertile river location, and the political significance of Rajgir faded, though its spiritual legacy remains eternal.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi, R jagÙiha, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1987, p.5.

clip_image066.jpg

From right: Ven. Bửu Chánh, Ven. Tâm Đức,

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Bhikṣuṇī TN Nguyên Hương and a monk at Peace Stupa, Rājagaha.

at Gṛdhrakūṭa peak, Rajgir, May 01, 1997.

 

3.2.3.  IMPORTANT HISTORICAL RELICS CURRENTLY REMAINING IN THE CITY OF RĀJAGṚHA

Archaeological excavations in Rajgir have provided a clearer picture of the ancient capital of Magadha and the sacred relics associated with the Sangha during the Buddha’s time. Below is a summary of the significant historical monuments that remain:

3.2.3.i.   NEW RĀJAGṚHA CITY

According to records and excavations, this city was enclosed by a massive earthen wall approximately 5 km in circumference.

  • Wall Structure: The fortifications were built of rough stone, measuring between 57m and 5.50m thick and 3.35m high. Semi-circular bastions protected the gates located at the South and West.50
  • Cultural Layers: Excavations from 1905–06 revealed ancient buildings with three distinct foundation layers. The deepest layer contained precious artifacts, including:
  • Brāhmī copper coins (1st–2nd century BCE).
  • Gold coins featuring images of elephants and trees.
  • Clay tablets inscribed with the Dharma verse: “Ye dharmā hetu-prabhavā…” (Of those phenomena which arise from causes...)51.

3.2.3.ii.   TAPODĀRĀMA HOT SPRINGS (Sarasvatī)

Located at the foot of Vaibhāra Hill, these springs are among the most popular attractions for tourists and pilgrims today.

Characteristics: The water temperature is approximately 105°F (40.5°C) and contains mild radioactivity and minerals, believed to have curative properties for skin ailments.

History: Pali scriptures identify this as Tapodārāma. Both the Buddha and King Bimbisāra frequently bathed here. Today, the area remains crowded with people coming to pay respects and utilize the natural hot water.

3.2.3.iii.        VEṆUVANA MONASTERY (THE BAMBOO GROVE)

 

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, Eastern Cicle, 1905-6, p.

14.

  • Ye dharmā hetu-prabhavā hetuṃ teṣāṃ Tathāgato hy avadat, teṣāṃ ca yo nirodha evaṃ-vādī mahā-śramaṇaḥ.

(“The Tathāgata has explained the cause of all phenomena that arise from a cause, as well as their cessation. Such is the teaching of the Great Shramana.”)

Less than 300m from the hot springs52 lies the Bamboo Grove, the first formal monastery of Buddhism, offered by King Bimbisāra.53

Karanda Pond: A cool pond situated within the grove, donated by Karanda for the monks to bathe and wash their robes. Although the current pond may have been reconstructed on the old site multiple times, it still retains the serene atmosphere of ancient times.

Archaeological Findings: In this area, archaeologists discovered the foundations of nine brick stupas and several important relics:

A stone slab depicting the Buddha turning the Wheel of Dharma. A statue of a Bodhisattva in meditation between two deities.

Small clay stupas inscribed with Dharma verses from the 8th– 9th century.

Significance: This was where the Buddha resided for many rainy seasons (Vassa). A stupa dedicated to Venerable Moggallāna is also believed to be located in this area to honor his status as the foremost in psychic powers.

The presence of lush green bamboo and ancient brick foundations here feels as though the footsteps of the Great Arhats still linger, helping pilgrims deeply sense the golden era of the Dharma in the Kingdom of Magadha.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • According to D. N. Sen in the work Rajgir and its Neighbourhood (page 30), the author disagrees that this current site is the original Karaṇḍa-hrada lake, because Xuanzang explicitly recorded that the lake had already disappeared by his time.

This implies that the current lake, although situated on the ancient site and surrounded by the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana) as D. N. Sen accepts, is not the original one. However, it is possible that the lake has been excavated and restored multiple times on the foundation of the old one.

  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1905-6, 94.

3.2.3.iv. THE MONASTERY OF KING AJATASHATRU

Xuanzang observed a monastery built by King Ajatashatru located east of the Bamboo Grove (Venuvana). This stupa must have been very close to the Bamboo Grove’s grounds, as mentioned in the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa.   Consequently, the mound on the left side of the current road and the stone foundations found there may be the Bamboo Grove stupa, with some pillars likely belonging to a later period.54

3.2.3.v.  THE CAVE OF MAHA KASSAPA (Pippali Cave)

Continuing up from the hot springs on the eastern slope of Mount Vaibhāra, to the right of the path leading to the summit, there is a cave locally known as a “watchtower” (Mañcāna or Jarāsandha-kī-baiṭhak). Both Buddhist scriptures and the travelogues of Chinese pilgrims identify this as the cave where Maha Kassapa resided.

The structure is rectangular with a base measuring 25.9m x 24.7m, a top measuring 24.8m x 24m, and a height of 6 to 8m. Surrounding the cave are several small, irregularly shaped rooms. These walls resemble the rectangular outer walls of Old Rājagṛha, with sloping foundations. On top of this “cave” (structure) are five tombs, four with brick foundations and one located to the south.

According to John Marshall, this site may have originally been a common watchtower with small rooms for guards:

“After that time, when it was no longer needed for guarding purposes, it became a place for hermits to practice.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


Pali scriptures describe the Pippali Cave as the residence of Maha Kassapa, the president of the First Buddhist Council. The Buddha also visited Maha Kassapa here when he was ill.55

  • P.Jayaswal, Imperial History of India, 1934, p.20.
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1905-6, pp. 89-90. List of Ancient Monuments in Bengal, 1895, p. 262-3.

3.2.3.vi.   SAPTAPARNI CAVE (The Seven-Leaf Cave)

Further up from Maha Kassapa’s cave, the path is wide and paved with bricks, but the distance and elevation are strenuous. Many locals offer transport services; four men carry a chair or two men carry a hammock for a fee (approx. 400 Rs).

At the summit of Mount Baibhara stands the modern Ādinātha Temple of the Jain tradition. To the east is a small grassy path leading down to a valley containing six interconnected caves. Part of the artificial entrance is paved and 1.82m wide. Both Mahayana and Theravada scriptures describe this site as the location where 500 monks held the First Buddhist Council six months after the Buddha’s Parinirvana, under the patronage of King Ajatashatru. There is a stupa here commemorating Ananda attaining Arhatship the night before the council. Later, King Ashoka erected a stupa to the west to mark this historic event.

3.2.3.vii.    THE NORTH GATE

Returning to the hot springs and crossing the modern iron bridge at Sarasvatī, turn right and follow the main road for about 182m to find the North Gate of Old Rājagṛha. Buddhist scriptures record that one day, King Bimbisara bathed at the hot springs and found the gate closed upon his return; he consequently spent the night at the Bamboo Grove monastery with the Buddha.56

3.2.3.viii.   BIMBISARA’S JAIL

One kilometer south of Maniyar Math is a brick foundation 60m wide, surrounded by 2m-thick stone walls with circular bastions at the corners. This is Bimbisara’s Jail. From his cell window, the King could look up toward Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) to see the Buddha walking in meditation.57

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi, R jagÙiha, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1987, p.20.
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1913-4, trang 90.

3.2.3.ix.   JIVAKA’S MANGO GARDEN

East of the foot of Mount Chhaṭṭha-giri lies the Mango Garden of Jivaka. Jivaka was a famous physician who served Kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru. He offered this garden to the Buddha and the Sangha to build a monastery. Recent excavations have revealed several foundations of ancient monastic structures here.

3.2.3.x.   MARDAKUKSHI

Located near the foot of Vulture Peak, this is where Queen Videhi (Bimbisara’s wife) reportedly tried to induce a miscarriage after learning her child would kill the King. It is also the site where the Buddha was brought on a stretcher after being wounded by a rock thrown by Devadatta, before being moved to Jivaka’s monastery.

3.2.3.xi.   BIMBISARA’S ROAD

At the foot of Mount Chhaṭṭha-giri, a small trail begins to ascend the mountain. Xuanzang notes that when King Bimbisara visited the Buddha on Vulture Peak, his troops “leveled the valleys and built stone steps 10 paces wide and 5 to 6 li long.”58 Marshall noted that these stone steps still existed in Xuanzang’s time as a useful path through the forest.59

3.2.3.xii.    THE STUPAS

Along this road are two brick stupas. Xuanzang noted that the first stupa marks where King Bimbisara dismounted his horse, and the second stupa marks where he ordered his troops to stay behind so he could ascend to the peak alone. These were excavated in 1905–06, though nothing was found inside.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, II, Delhi, 1994, 153.
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1913-4, p.91.

3.2.3.xiii. VULTURE PEAK SUMMIT (Gijjhakūṭa)

Passing through a deep mountain gorge at the end of the stone path, the foundation of Vulture Peak60 is situated on the right. There are two natural stone caves with steps in front of them. Inside one of these caves, terracotta plaques were found depicting the seven past Buddhas and Maitreya Buddha, arranged in two rows with inscriptions beneath each figure. Outside the caves, foundations of large stone structures indicate past buildings. Further up to the right, ancient stone-cut steps lead to a wide brick and stone sanctuary. This site remains a primary destination for pilgrims to chant and meditate, as it is where the Buddha frequently resided and delivered discourses.

3.2.3.xiv.   MANIYAR MATH STUPA

This stupa is a site where a portion of the Buddha’s relics is enshrined. The text notes that Rājagṛha remains a major attraction for tourists and archaeologists. Excavated artifacts from this region are carefully preserved by the Indian government and are currently displayed in the Nālandā Museum.

3.3.   NĀLANDĀ (The Ancient University)

Nālandā is located near the villages of Bargaon and Sarichak, 90 km southeast of Patna and 12 km north of Rājagṛha. It is the birthplace of the Buddha’s two chief disciples, Sāriputta and Moggallāna.61

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Some scholars doubt this However, based on the accounts of Chinese pilgrims and the artifacts discovered here, this possibility is relatively accurate. Furthermore, Pāli literature does not contradict this view. The presence of Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) is confirmed through Gandhara sculptures dating back to the 2nd–3rd centuries CE. (See N.G. Majumdar, Guide to Sculptures in the Indian Museum, Vol. II, Delhi, 1937, p. 61).
  • To expand on the subject of the Bodhi tree, there is an article by the author Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Chapter 6.8: Nālandā in Ancient and Buddhist Literature in this book “The Dawn of India”. Please read it in next three chapters.

Historical Significance

 

 
  clip_image068.jpg

 

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (brown dress) and Vietnamese Monastics in Nālandā ruins, in October 04 1996.

 

OVERVIEW HISTORY OF NĀLANDĀ

  • Ancient Roots: While the university reached its peak later, the site was significant during the time of the Buddha and Mahāvīra (6th–5th century BCE). The Brahmajāla Sutta mentions the Buddha traveling between Nālandā and Rājagṛha, often staying at Pavarika’s mango
  • In Pāli scriptures, the name Nālandā is frequently In the Brahmajāla Sutta (the first discourse of the Dīgha Nikāya or Long Discourses), it is recorded that the Buddha traveled between Nālandā and Rājagṛha (antarā ca Nālandā antarā ca Rājagahaṃ). 62
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Shastri, N land and its Epigraphical Materials, p. 3-4.
  • During these travels, the Buddha often stayed in the mango grove of Pāvārika, a wealthy merchant in Nālandā. It appears that during the Buddha’s lifetime, Nālandā was an influential town, populous, wealthy, and prosperous (iddhā ceva phītā ca bahujanā ākiṇṇamanussā).63
  • Etymology: Xuanzang suggested the name comes from a Naga (dragon) named Nālandā who lived in a nearby pond. Another interpretation is that in a past life, the Buddha was a king here known for his “insatiable generosity” (Na-lan-da meaning “insatiable in giving”).

3.3.1.  KEY FIGURES

According to Xuanzang,64the name “Nālandā” originated from a Nāga (dragon) that lived in a lake to the south of the area65. However, it may be more accurate to say that in a previous life, the Buddha was a king who established his capital here and named it Nālandā, meaning “Insatiable in Giving” (Na-alam- dā)66. Meanwhile, Yijing suggested that Nālandā was named after the Nāga Nālandā.

Faxian traveled 9 yojanas southeast from Pāṭaliputra to a small rocky hill (near Giriyak)67, then continued for 1 yojana, about 7 miles to the west, to reach a place near Nālandā (Baragaon). This is the village where Sariputta was born and entered Parinirvana. A stupa still stood there when Faxian arrived.

  • Faxian (Pháp Hiền): Visited the area in the early 5th While he described a place called Nalo (the birthplace of Sāriputta), he did not describe a grand university, suggesting it had not yet reached its peak importance.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Xuanzang (Huyền Trang): Arrived in the 7th century when
  • Shastri, N land and its Epigraphical Materials, p.4.
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, Delhi, 1994, 173 -
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, II, Delhi, 1994, 167.
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, II, Delhi, 1994, 167.
  • R.Patil, Antiquarian Remains in Bihar, pp. 301-305.

Nālandā was at its zenith. He credited King Śakrāditya with founding the first monastery, followed by successive kings like Buddhagupta, Tathāgatagupta, and Bālāditya.

Figure/King

Contribution/Role

Kumāragupta I

Founded the first monastery (Śakrāditya) in Nālandā complex.

Faxian

Left detailed 5th-century accounts used for modern discovery.

Xuanzang

Left detailed 7th-century accounts used for modern discovery.

Devapāla

Provided massive grants; strengthened ties with South East Asia.

Dharmakīrti

Famed logician who defended Buddhism in debates.

Bakhtiyar Khalji

Led the 12th-century invasion that destroyed the site.

Dharmasvāmin

The last Tibetan pilgrim to see the ruins of Nālandā in the 13th century.

3.3.2.  LIFE AT THE UNIVERSITY

Nālandā was a world-class institution with incredibly strict entrance requirements.

  • Academic Rigor: Prospective students faced grueling examinations at the gate; only a small fraction were
  • Curriculum: Students studied both Mahayana and Theravada doctrines, Logic (Hetuvidya), Grammar, Medicine, and Fine
  • Debate: Dialectics and formal debate were the primary methods of learning.
  • Distinguished Scholars:    Notable    figures    included

Śīlabhadra (Xuanzang’s teacher), Abhayākaragupta, and

Naropa.

  • KEY SITES AT NĀLANDĀ
  • The Great Stupa (Temple No. 3): A massive structure standing about 20m high, built in layers over several
  • Monastery Foundations: Large brick courtyards with cells for monks and central shrines.
  • Mango Grove: The traditional site where the Buddha preached for three months.

Royal Patronage and Expansion

Nālandā was not built by a single person but grew over centuries through the devotion of multiple dynasties:

  • The Gupta Dynasty (5th–6th Century): Historians identify King Śakrāditya as Kumāragupta I (414–455 CE), the primary founder. He was followed by kings such as Buddhagupta, Tathāgata-gupta, Bālāditya, and Vajra, each adding new monasteries and supporting the
  • The Harṣa Dynasty (7th Century): King Harṣa of Kanauj built a brass monastery and supported the university during Xuanzang’s visit. During this time, the King of Magadha, Pūrṇavarman, offered an 80-foot copper standing Buddha
  • The Pāla Dynasty (8th–12th Century): Under kings like Dharmapāla and Devapāla, Nālandā entered a second golden Inscriptions reveal that King Bālaputradeva of Java (Indonesia) requested that the revenues of five villages be dedicated to the upkeep of the university, highlighting its international status.

3.3.4.  ACADEMIC AND SPIRITUAL EMINENCE

Nālandā was the epicenter of Buddhist logic and philosophy:

  • Famous Scholars: It was the home of Śāriputra and Moggallāna (whose relics were enshrined in nearby stupas). Later masters included Dharmakīrti, who famously defeated the Brahmin scholar Śaṅkarācārya in debate, and Padmasambhava, who brought Vajrayana Buddhism to
  • The Library: Known as Dharmagañja (Treasury of Truth), it housed thousands of manuscripts.
  • Curriculum: Beyond Buddhism, students studied the Vedas, logic, grammar, and

3.3.5.  THE FALL OF NĀLANDĀ

The university’s decline happened in stages:

  • Internal & Regional Conflict: Wars between local kings in the 11th century caused initial damage.
  • The Islamic Invasion (Late 12th Century): The final blow was dealt by Bakhtiyar Khalji. Historical accounts describe the slaughter of monks and the burning of the massive libraries, which reportedly smoldered for months.
  • The Final Years: The Tibetan monk Dharmasvāmin visited in 1234–1236 CE and found a ghost of the former Only two temples remained functional, supported by a few aging monks amidst the ruins.

3.3.6.  ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERY

After centuries of being buried under mounds of earth (known locally as Bargaon), Nālandā was rediscovered:

  • Alexander Cunningham: In the 1860s, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India identified the site based on

the precise travel records of Xuanzang.

  • Excavation Results: Systematic digging began in 1915, revealing a planned city:
    • Dimensions: Approximately 1,600 feet (North-South) by 800 feet (East-West).
    • Layout: A central path 100 feet wide separates a row of 9-11 monasteries (facing West) from a row of temples (facing East).
    • Temple No. 3: The most iconic ruin, a massive stupa- temple structure surrounded by votive stupas built over four distinct historical layers.

Today, the site is a UNESCO World Heritage site, standing as a testament to India’s “Golden Age” of education and spiritual inquiry.

3.3.7.   DETAILED ARCHITECTURAL SURVEY OF THE REMAINING STRUCTURES AT NĀLANDĀ

Specifically focusing on the numbered monasteries (Viharas) and temples uncovered by archaeologists.

3.3.7.i.   MONASTERY NO. 1 (The Central Hub)

Located at the southern end, this is the largest and most significant structure at Nālandā.

  • Architecture: A rectangular building (205’x168’) built with high-quality bricks. It features a grand entrance on the western side leading to a 32-foot-wide
  • Living Quarters: The lower level consists of simple rooms without beds, while upper-level rooms each contain two 9- foot stone beds.
  • Religious Center: Opposite the main gate is the sanctuary enshrining a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha in
  • Archaeological Wealth: This site yielded the most artifacts, including copper  plate   inscriptions   from kings Samudragupta, Devapāla, and the decree from Bālaputradeva of Java. Experts believe this was the administrative heart of the university.

3.3.7.ii.  THE TEMPLES (No. 3, 12, 13, and 14)

The temples follow a distinct layout often compared to Hindu styles of the same era.

  • Temple 3: A massive structure surrounded by numerous “votive stupas” (votive offerings). It underwent seven layers of construction over centuries. The fifth layer (6th century) is notable for its exquisite stucco reliefs of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, reflecting the Sārnāth-Gupta style.
  • Temples 12, 13, and 14: These follow the pañcāyatana (five-shrine) layout, one central main hall with four smaller corner towers.
  • Architectural Fusion: Archaeologist G.C. Chawley notes that Temple No. 12 shares striking similarities with Hindu temples in Odisha (such as the Brahmeśvara Temple), showing the cross-pollination of Buddhist and Hindu architectural art in Eastern India.

3.3.7.iii.  MONASTERY HIGHLIGHTS (No. 1A through 11)

The text details the unique features of the various living and study quarters:

  • Monasteries 1A & 1B: Built on high ground with concrete stairs, proving these buildings were multi-storied. Monastery 1B features a unique octagonal well.
  • Monastery 5: Noted for its “double-row” room configuration, where one room is situated directly behind another, connected by corbelled doorways.
  • Monastery 6: Contains two brick-paved courtyards and two rows of ovens. While some suggest these were for cooking, Venerable Thich Minh Chau argues they were likely for dyeing robes, as monks traditionally did not cook inside the monastery.
  • Monastery No. 9: Evidence of fire was found here; the presence of charcoal on the stairs suggests the original wooden structures were burned down during
  • Monastery 10: Distinguished by the use of mud arches

and door frames instead of wood.

  • Monastery No. 11: Located near rice fields, this site is in a state of ruin but is unique for its 25 stone pillars standing in the courtyard, spaced exactly one meter

Summary of Archaeological Features

 

Feature

Notable Location

Significance

Copper Decrees

Monastery No.

1

Evidence of international royal support (Java/Gupta).

Stucco Reliefs

Temple No. 3

High-water mark of Gupta-era Buddhist art.

Dyeing Ovens

Monastery No.

6

Evidence of daily monastic life and robe maintenance.68

Octagonal Well

Monastery No.

1B

Advanced water management and unique geometry.

Stone Pillars

Monastery No.

11

Unique structural support not seen in other blocks.

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Thích Minh Châu, The Path to the Buddha’s Land, Đại Nam, USA, 1994, 219.

3.4.THE DEER PARK (Sārnāth)

The Journey to Sārnāth

We arrived at Gaya station to catch a train to Sārnāth. The train was scheduled for 10:00 AM in October 6, 1996, but our group sat waiting until 2:00 PM, and it still hadn’t arrived. Finally, the station announced that an accident had blocked the tracks, and the train would not be coming. We decided to “offer” our tickets to a local High Monk (hoping he could refund them later) and hurriedly rented a bus. Because of the urgency and the long distance, the rental price was quite high. The bus had to drive through the entire night to reach our destination.

The bus ride turned out to be quite joyful. Since we had the bus all to ourselves, we spent the night singing and performing for one another. The Indian driver and his two assistants seemingly couldn’t handle our “melodious” singing, so they turned up their Indian music to full volume to drown us out. It became a battle between humans and machines, alternating songs and telling humorous Buddhist stories to make the long night pass quickly.

At 4:00 AM the next morning, we arrived at the Chinese Temple. The temple was still asleep, so we had to call out for someone to open the gates. Eventually, everyone found a warm, cozy place to sleep at the Chinese Temple in Sārnāth, Varanasi.

The Sacred Significance

 
  clip_image047.gif


Sārnāth is a deeply sacred site for Buddhists. It is where the Buddha delivered his first sermon to the five ascetics: Koṇḍañña, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Assaji69. These were the individuals whom He had previously encountered in Rājagaha. Since then, his Buddhism has spread across more than half the

  • The Buddha and His Disciples (Phật và Thánh chúng), translated into Vietnamese: Cao hữu đính: Kiều trần như (Ajnata Kaudinya), A xả bà thệ (Asvajit), Maha bạt đề (Bhadrika), Thập lực ca diếp (Dasabala-kasyapa), Ma nam Câu ly (Mahanama-kuliya.

globe. This is why Sārnāth remains one of the Four Great Holy Sites of Buddhism or “Sārnāth - The Cradle of Buddhism”70. It is located about 13 kilometers from Varanasi (anciently known as the capital of Kashi or Benares), in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

 
  clip_image070.jpg

Vietnamese Monastics,

at Sārnāth Stupa, Varanasi, India, in October 06 1996.

 

3.4.1.   OVERVIEW HISTORY OF SĀRNĀTH Historical and Geographical Notes

  • Sārnāth: One of the four main pilgrimage sites (the others being Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, and Kushinagar). It marks the site of the first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The Decision to Teach: This event is known as the Ayacana Sutta (The Request). It highlights the Buddhist view that even a Buddha respects the principle of causality, the “request”
  • Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Sārnāth - The Cradle of Buddhism, Hong Duc Publishing House, 2020. https://thuvienhoasen.org/images/file/KuVxsnF42AgQANN8/sarnath-the- cradle-of-buddhism-thich-nu-gioi-huong.pdf

provides the necessary condition for the “teaching” to occur.

  • Isipatana (Chư Thiên Đọa Xứ): Historically translated as “The place where the sages land” or “The falling of the ” Legend says that Pratyekabuddhas (Silent Buddhas) would fly from the Himalayas and land here.
  • The Distance: The 250 km trek from Bodh Gaya to Sārnāth is a significant historical journey, illustrating the Buddha’s commitment to finding his former companions despite the physical distance.

i.  The Era of the Buddha (6th Century BCE)

Originally known as Isipatana (“the place where sages landed”) or Mrigadava (Deer Park), Sārnāth is where the Buddha traveled after his Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.

  • The First Sermon: The Buddha preached the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Eightfold Path to his five former companions.
  • Birth of the Sangha: It was here that the first sixty monks were ordained and sent forth to spread the Dhamma, marking the formal beginning of the Buddhist

ii.   The Mauryan Golden Age (3rd Century BCE)

Emperor Ashoka transformed Sārnāth into a major center of pilgrimage and power.

  • Dharmarajika Stupa: Built by Ashoka to enshrine the relics of the (Tragically, much of its material was removed in 1794 by Jagat Singh for construction).
  • The Ashoka Pillar: Topped by the Lion Capital, which now serves as the National Emblem of India. The pillar features an inscription warning monks against causing schisms in the

iii.  The Kushan & Gupta Periods (1st – 6th Century CE)

This era marked the peak of Sārnāth’s artistic and intellectual influence.

  • The Dhamekh Stupa: The current massive structure (43.6m tall) dates largely to the Gupta period. It is famous for its intricate floral stone carvings and Brahmi
  • Sārnāth School of Art: Characterized by the “wet drapery” style and the serene, meditative facial expressions of the Buddha statues (many of which are now in the Sārnāth Museum).

iv.   Medieval Decline & Rediscovery (11th – 19th Century CE)

Pala Dynasty: Rulers continued to patronize Sārnāth until the 12th century. The last major monument, the Dharmachakra Jina Vihar, was built by Queen Kumaradevi.

The Fall (1194 CE): Sārnāth was largely destroyed during the invasions by the Ghurids, leading to centuries of neglect.

Rediscovery: In the 1830s, Alexander Cunningham led major excavations, bringing the site back to global consciousness.

Feature

Dharmarajika Stupa

Dhamekh Stupa

Origin

Mauryan (Ashoka)

Mauryan, expanded in Gupta

Purpose

Reliquary (enclosing relics)

Commemorative (marking the sermon)

Current State

Only the foundation remains

Nearly intact, massive cylinder

3.4.2.   THE GREAT REQUEST

Reflecting on the course of history, during the eighth week after

his Enlightenment, the Buddha contemplated how he could bring the truth of Enlightenment to sentient beings. He considered that people in this world are deeply mired in the five sensual desires, making it difficult for them to receive the profound Dhamma he had just realized. Furthermore, if the Buddha were to preach his teachings and people did not understand, it would be a futile endeavor. These and many other thoughts arose in his mind, and he ultimately decided not to preach.

At that moment, Brahma Sahampati71 observed and realized that the Buddha’s current inclination would result in misfortune for the world and that humanity would suffer greatly as a result. Immediately, Brahma joined his palms and entreated the Buddha:

“O Blessed One! Please graciously preach the Dhamma to dispel ignorance, for there are still many who wish to escape the bonds of the worldly realm. If they do not know the True Dhamma, they will fall into ruin. We implore you to be compassionate and mercifully bestow the milk of the Dhamma.”

After this request was made three times, the Buddha accepted the invitation.72 Immediately following this, the Brahma bowed in gratitude to the Buddha and disappeared.

3.4.3.   SEEKING THE FIRST DISCIPLES

The Buddha then pondered: “To whom shall I first teach the Dharma? Who is capable of understanding it?”

  • According to Buddhism, Sahampati is Svayambhu; however, the book The Legend of the Burmese Buddha states: “This Brahma, during the time of Kassapa Buddha, was an Arhat (Rahan) named Sahaka...” It appears that according to the specific Burmese pronunciation, Kassapa is read as Kathaba, and Sahaka is read as Rahan means Arhat.
  • The Great Chronicle of Buddha (Ven. Minyun Sayadaw) , states that the Buddha looked upon the world with his eyes of wisdom and saw that some people were completely submerged in the depths of sin and defilement, some were only halfway submerged, and others possessed the potential for spiritual efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www>.bps.lk/olib/mi/mi014.pdf

He first thought of Ālāra Kālāma, his first teacher who taught him the state of “Nothingness,” and then Uddaka Rāmaputta, his second teacher who taught him the state of “Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.” He deemed them worthy, but through his divine insight, he realized both had already passed away.

He then thought of the five ascetic companions who had practiced with him in the forest: Koṇḍañña (Kaundinya), Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Assaji. 73 Using his supernatural powers, he saw that they were staying at the Deer Park (Migadāya), also known as Isipatana (The Place of the Falling Seers), in Sārnāth.

The Buddha embarked on a journey of over 250 kilometers on foot from Bodh Gaya, crossing the Ganges River by ferry and traveling through the city of Kashi to reach Sārnāth.

3.4.4.   THE MEETING AT SĀRNĀTH

When the five ascetics saw the Buddha approaching from a distance, they whispered to each other:

“Friends, here comes the ascetic Gotama. He has become a Vāhullika (one who lives in abundance) and a Vibhrānta (one who has strayed from the path). We should not greet him, stand up for him, or show him reverence. We will simply set out a seat, and he can sit there if he likes.”

However, as the Buddha drew closer, they became restless and uneasy. When he stood before them, his majestic, calm, and transcendent presence was so overwhelming that, without a word to one another, they all instinctively stood up to welcome him with deep respect.

The Buddha sat down and washed his feet. He then gently told them his story, how he had discovered the Middle Way and abandoned the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-

mortification. He explained that he had not returned to a life of luxury, but through his diligent meditation after leaving asceticism, he had finally conquered Mara under the Bodhi tree and attained Full Enlightenment.

3.4.5. THE BIRTH OF THE SANGHA

The five ascetics initially addressed the Buddha by his name or as an equal. The Buddha explained that they should no longer address him by name or as a “friend,” for he was now an Enlightened One, a Tathāgata, and a Samyak-sambuddha (Perfectly Enlightened One):

“O Monks, through unceasing effort, I have attained enlightenment and the state of deathlessness. For your benefit, I shall teach you the Dharma. If you practice according to these teachings, you too shall soon realize the truth, gain wisdom, and end the cycle of birth and death.”74

Initially, the five ascetics did not believe him, arguing that if he could not achieve wisdom through severe asceticism, he certainly could not have achieved it by returning to a life of “abundance.”

The Buddha clarified that he had not returned to luxury, but had stayed diligent in the Middle Way. After he asked them three times, “Have I ever spoken to you like this before?” they admitted he had not and decided to listen. Thus, he delivered his first sermon, known as “Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion” (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta).75

The Core Teachings

 
  clip_image047.gif

Upon hearing the sermon, Aññā Koṇḍañña attained the state of Sotapanna (Stream-entry). He requested to follow the Buddha, and the Buddha welcomed them saying, “Come, O Monks, the Dharma is well-preached.” In that moment, the Sangha (the monastic community) was officially formed at Isipatana Migadāya. Soon after, the Buddha preached the second sermon, the Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (Discourse on the Non-Self)76, and all five became Arahants. At that time, there were only 6 saints (The Buddha and five Aññā Koṇḍañña disciples) in the world.77

3.4.6. THE CONVERSION OF YASA

While at Sārnāth, the Buddha met a young Brahmin named Yasa. Yasa was the beloved son of a wealthy merchant, living a life of extreme luxury surrounded by beautiful dancers.

One night, Yasa woke up at midnight and saw the dancers sleeping. The sight was repulsive: some were snoring with mouths wide open, saliva drooling, talking in their sleep, with disheveled hair and smeared makeup. To Yasa, the palace suddenly looked like a “living cemetery” (śmaśāna).

Filled with distress, he left his home and wandered toward the Deer Park. The Buddha, seeing him from a distance, stepped of f his meditation path (Caṅkramaṇa) and sat down. Yasa

 

approached him, crying out: “Everything is so distressing and

miserable!”

The Buddha replied kindly: “Here, there is no distress and no

sorrow. Come, sit down, and I will teach you the Dharma.”

The Buddha taught him about:

1.      Dana (Generosity) and Sila (Morality).

  1. The Heavens and the drawbacks of sensual

3.      Renunciation and the path to true peace.

Yasa’s heart became pure like a clean white cloth, and he attained Enlightenment.

The Expansion of the Sangha

  • The First Lay Disciple: Yasa’s father came looking for After hearing the Buddha’s teaching, he became the first layman to take refuge in the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha).
  • The Four Friends: Yasa’s close friends (Subāhu, Punṇaji, Gahampati, and Vimala) also sought out the Buddha and became
  • The 50 Youths: Shortly after, 50 more young men from wealthy families joined the Sangha. Within a short time, there were 61 Arahants in the world (the Buddha and his 60 disciples).

3.4.7.   THE SPREADING OF THE DHARMA

The Buddha spent his first rainy season retreat (Vassa) at Sārnāth. He encountered another group of 60 youths who were searching for a missing girl. The Buddha famously asked them:

“Which is better: to seek a woman, or to seek yourselves?”

They replied that seeking themselves was better. They listened

to his teaching and became lay followers.

From Sārnāth, the “Dharma-water” began to flow everywhere. During his several visits to Sārnāth, the Buddha delivered many important discourses78, including:

  • Panca Sutta (Discourse on the Five)79
  • Rathakara Sutta (The Chariot Maker)80
  • Dhammadinna Sutta     (Preached    to     the     layman Dhammadinna)81
  • Anattalakkhana Sutta (Discourse on Non-self)82

3.4.8.        THE    CONTINUED   LEGACY OF ISIPATANA (SĀRNĀTH)

Monastic Life and Dialogues

Sārnāth remained a vibrant center for the Sangha long after the Buddha’s Parinirvana. It was the setting for profound dialogues, such as those between Sariputta and Mahakotthita. It was also here that the monks attempted to help Channa overcome his spiritual difficulties. On another occasion, the Buddha established rules here regarding the consumption of meat (specifically prohibiting human meat after the laywoman Suppiya offered a piece of her own flesh to heal a sick monk). Even Mara (the Tempter) is said to have challenged the Buddha twice at Sārnāth, only to retreat in failure.

The Testimony of Xuanzang (7th Century)

In his Buddhist Records of the Western World, the Chinese

 
  clip_image047.gif

78 A, I, 109; A, I, 280; A, III, 399; A, IV, 383; S, I, 105; S, V, 406...

pilgrim Xuanzang described Sārnāth as a flourishing center with 15,000 monks studying the Hinayana tradition. He noted:

  • A magnificent monastery 200 feet high with a golden mango-leaf roof.
  • A life-sized copper statue of the Buddha in the “Turning the Wheel of Dharma”
  • A stone stupa built by King Ashoka and a 70-foot stone pillar, as bright as jade, which reflected signs of good or ill fortune to those who prayed there.
  • Memorials marking the site where the five ascetics practiced meditation and where 500 Pratyekabuddhas entered

3.4.9. THE LEGEND OF THE DEER KING

According to the Udapana Jataka (Story 150)83, there was an ancient well at Isipatana (Chư Thiên Đọa Xứ) that the Sangha frequently used during the Buddha’s lifetime.

Furthermore, the Nigrodhamiga Jataka (The Banyan Deer Jataka) and the Mahāvastu (The Great Story) recount a legend related to Sarnath-Isipatana as follows:

The name Migadaya (Deer Park) originates from a famous

Jataka story (a tale of the Buddha’s past life).84

 
  clip_image047.gif


In ancient times, a king of Benares, Brahmadatta, loved hunting deer. The Bodhisattva was then a magnificent golden deer named Nyagrodha85, leading a herd of 500. Another deer, Visakha, led a second herd of 500. To prevent the wasteful slaughter caused by the king’s hunts, the two deer kings struck a bargain with Brahmadatta: one deer would be sent to the royal kitchen voluntarily each day.

  • 150Jataka, Fausboll, II, 354 ff.
  • Jataka, Fausboll, II, 145 ff.
  • Jātaka, I,

One day, a pregnant doe from Visakha’s herd was chosen. She begged for her life until her fawns were born. Visakha refused to skip her turn, so she appealed to Nyagrodha. Moved by compassion, Nyagrodha decided to go to the kitchen himself to die in her place.

When the King saw the golden deer king lying his head on the chopping block, he was stunned. Upon learning the reason, the King was deeply moved and declared:

“You are a beast with a human heart; I am a human with a beast’s heart.”

The King immediately granted immunity to all deer and dedicated the forest to them. Thus, the area became known as Isipatana-Migadaya, the Deer Park.

 
  clip_image072.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương feeding deers

at Isipatana-Migadaya, Sārnāth, October 06, 1996.

 

3.4.10.            ARCHAEOLOGICAL     MONUMENTS      AND ROYAL PATRONS

  1. King Ashoka (3rd Century BCE)

Ashoka was the first major patron of Sārnāth. His contributions include:

  • The Dharmarajika Stupa: A massive structure once 4m high (tragically dismantled in 1794 for building materials).
  • The Lion Capital: A monolithic pillar topped by four back- to-back lions. This capital is now the National Emblem of India.
  • The Ashoka Edicts: Inscriptions warning against schism within the Sangha.

ii. The Gupta Golden Age (4th–6th Century CE)

Sārnāth reached its artistic zenith under the Guptas.

  • The Dhamekh Stupa: The massive, existing stupa is decorated with intricate geometric and floral stone
  • Masterpieces of Sculpture: The famous “Preaching Buddha” statue (Dharmacakra-pravartana-mudra), widely considered one of the finest examples of Buddhist art in the

iii. The Final Destruction

Sārnāth survived various invasions, including the Huna (Huns) in the 5th century. However, the final catastrophe occurred in the late 12th century when the armies of Muhammad of Ghor swept through.

Archaeologist Cunningham and Major Kittoe noted that every excavation at Sārnāth revealed layers of charcoal and half-burned timber.

Monks were killed, and the monasteries were razed by fire. Unlike the city of Benares (Varanasi), which revived as a Hindu center, the Buddhist community at Sārnāth never recovered from this final blow.

SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL RUINS

 

Monument

Origin / Era

Significance

Dhamekh Stupa

Ashokan core / Gupta expansion

Marks the exact spot where the Buddha first preached.

 

Lion Capital

Ashoka (Maurya)

Symbol of the spread of Dharma; India’s national emblem.

Mula- gandhakuti

Gupta / Harsha

The main temple where the Buddha stayed.

Chaukhandi Stupa

Gupta / Mughal

Marks where the Buddha met his five friends again.

Today, the artifacts from these 1,500 years of history (3rd century BCE to 12th century CE) are preserved in the Sārnāth Archaeological Museum.

3.4.11. THE CURRENT MONUMENTS OF SĀRNĀTHA

Today, five major structures at Sārnāth are considered directly related to the life of the Buddha: the Dhamekh Stupa, the Dharmarājikā Stupa, the Main Shrine (Mūlagandhakuṭī), the Ashoka Pillar with its lion capital, and the Caṅkama (the Buddha’s walking path).

i. CHAUKHANDI STUPA

Standing independently near the Asharpur roundabout, this stupa is about 200m from the Thai Temple. It appears as a large earthen mound topped by an octagonal tower built in 1588 by King Akbar to commemorate his father, Humāyūn, who had visited the site. This stupa marks the traditional spot where the

Buddha first met his five former companions upon arriving at Sārnāth.

ii.   THE ARCHAELOGICAL ENCLOSURE

Upon entering the main archaeological site, the following ruins are visible:

a. MONASTERY VII & MONASTERY V

  • Monastery VII: A medieval structure built over an older It consists of a courtyard surrounded by rooms and corridors. Evidence of fire suggests it was destroyed during an invasion.
  • Monastery V: It includes a reception hall (Pratyupa- sthānaśālā) and a main This structure dates from the Gupta period and later expansions. A clay seal with Buddhist teachings in 9th-century script was found here.

b. DHARMARĀJIKĀ STUPA

Built by King Ashoka to enshrine the Buddha’s relics, this was once the focal point of Sārnāth.

  • Evolution: Excavations reveal six expansions over the original Ashokan foundation (13.49m in diameter).
  • The Golden Age: During the 5th–6th centuries, a 4.88m wide circumambulation path (pradakṣiṇāpatha) and four monolithic stone staircases were
  • Discoveries: Significant finds near this stupa include a large red sandstone Bodhisattva statue (3rd year of Kaniṣka) and the iconic Preaching Buddha Though once over 30m high, today only the foundation remains.

c. MONASTERY VI

 
  clip_image047.gif


A 10th-century structure built over a Gupta-era foundation86.

  • The history of Indian Buddhist art began in the Mauryan period under King

Due to the discovery of pestles and mortars, archaeologists suggest this may have served as a hospice or alms-house.

d. DHAMEKH STUPA

This is the most massive and prominent monument in Sārnāth, standing approximately 34m high (reaching 42m if the foundation is included). It marks the exact location where the Buddha “Turned the Wheel of Dharma.”

  • Etymology: Venis suggests the name Dhamekha derives from Dharmachakra (“Reflection on the Dharma”).
  • Architecture: The lower portion is made of massive stone blocks held together by iron clamps and decorated with exquisite Gupta-era carvings of humans, animals, birds, and lotus patterns.
  • Origin:  While   the   exterior   is   Gupta   (5th   century), archaeological evidence shows the brick core dates back to

      the Maurya period (2nd century BCE).                       Ashoka, followed by the Sunga-Satavahana era, which saw the construction of elegant stupas at sites like Bharhut and Amaravati. Early imagery was influenced by the Kushana school in Mathura and the Greco-Buddhist Gandhara style in the North, representing the teachings of the Sarvastivada and Mahasanghika schools.

The Gupta Period (4th–6th Century CE)

The Gupta era is considered the “Golden Age,” where art reached its peak of refinement and spiritual depth. Unlike earlier styles that were outward-looking, Gupta art was introverted and transcendent, focusing on the “Superhuman” (Mahapurusha). Key physical marks include the Ushnisha (topknot), spiral hair, and elongated ears.

The Sarnath School

While Mathura was a major hub, Sarnath became the center for a more creative, graceful aesthetic. The most famous masterpiece from this school is the Preaching Buddha (Dharmachakra Mudra):

Posture: The Buddha sits in the diamond pose (Vajraparyankasana).

The Pedestal: Features the five original disciples and the Wheel of Dhamma between two deer, representing the Deer Park.

Significance: It perfectly synthesizes objective form (sabda) with internal spiritual content (artha), depicting the moment the Buddha first taught the Four Noble Truths.

iii.   THE MAIN SHRINE (MŪLAGANDHAKUṬĪ)

The Main Shrine marks the place where the Buddha lived during his stays at Sārnāth and often used to sit in meditation. Archaeological excavations reveal multiple layers of construction spanning different eras. The deepest layer contains an ayāgapaṭṭa (votive tablet) dating back to the 1st century BCE.

  • Xuanzang’s Description: He described a massive 200-foot- tall structure with a golden mango-leaf The walls were lined with hundreds of niches, each containing a life-sized bronze statue of the Buddha in the “Turning the Wheel” posture.
  • Key Find: A stone umbrella fragment found nearby contains an inscription of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in Pāli (3rd century CE), detailing the Four Noble Truths.

iv.   THE LION CAPITAL ASHOKA PILLAR

Located west of the Main Shrine, this pillar was erected by King Ashoka to commemorate the founding of the first Sangha (consisting of the five companions, Yasa, and his 54 friends).

  • Structure: Originally 25m tall, the pillar was topped by the famous capital of four lions standing back-to-back. Today, only the 2.03m stump remains in situ, protected by an iron fence. The shaft is made of polished Chunar sandstone, tapering from a diameter of 71.1 cm at the base to 55.9 cm at the top.
  • The Schism Edict: The pillar bears an inscription in Brahmi script where Ashoka warns against creating divisions in the Sangha:

“…The Sangha must not be divided. Any person, whether a monk or a nun, who creates a schism shall be made to wear white robes and be expelled from the monastery.”

v.  VISITING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE

The Sārnāth Archaeological Site is a preserved sanctuary of history.

  • Hours: Open daily from 6:00 AM to 6:00 PM (Closed on Fridays).
  • Fees: Entry is 5 Rupees for Indian nationals and approximately 2 USD (100 Rs) for foreigners. International students with a valid Indian ID card can pay the local
  • Photography: Still photography is free; however, a 20 Rs fee applies for video cameras.

where the Buddha lived during his stays at Sārnāth.

  • Xuanzang’s Description: He described a massive 200-foot- tall structure with a golden mango-leaf The walls were lined with hundreds of niches, each containing a life-sized bronze statue of the Buddha in the “Turning the Wheel” posture.
  • Key Find: A stone umbrella fragment found nearby contains an inscription of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in Pāli (3rd century CE), detailing the Four Noble Truths.

3.4.12.   MODERN TEMPLES: THE MULAGANDHAKUTI VIHARA

Founded by Anagarika Dharmapala of the Maha Bodhi Society, this modern temple is the most prominent landmark outside the ruins.

clip_image074.jpg

The Mulagandhakuti Vihara (Hương Phòng)

stands majestically adjacent to the Sārnāth archaeological site (on the left when looking out from within).

Pictured are Bhikṣu Sumedha Thero (center), Ni sinh TN Giới Hương (third from left),

and a Vietnamese pilgrimage delegation on October 6, 1996.

 

a.  Architectural and Artistic Wonders

  • Frescoes: The interior is famous for its murals painted by Japanese artist Kosetsu Nosu. These scenes depict the entire life of the Buddha, from his birth in Lumbini to his Mahaparinirvana in
  • Relics: The temple enshrines authentic Buddha relics discovered in Taxila and Nagarjunakonda, donated by the Viceroy of India.
  • The Bodhi Tree: Outside the temple grows a lush Bodhi tree, a descendant of the original tree at Bodh Gaya. A life- sized statue group of the Buddha and the five disciples sits

b.   International Buddhist Presence

Sārnāth is home to a global community of temples, most of which offer affordable lodging for pilgrims:

  • The Tibetan Institute: The Central Institute of Higher Tibetan
  • National Temples: Chinese, Japanese (Matri Buddha), Burmese, Thai, Korean, and various Tibetan schools (Gelugpa, Nyingma).

3.4.13. THE GANGES RIVER

The Ganges River flows 2,469 kilometers from its source to the sea through various tributaries, covering one million square kilometers, nearly one-third of India’s geography. Ancient cities like Haridwar, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Calcutta line its banks. Originating from the majestic, snow-capped Himalayas and flowing into the Bay of Bengal, the Ganges is the “artery of life” and is worshipped as a sacred goddess.

Spiritual Significance in Buddhism

In Buddhist scriptures, the Ganges is a constant metaphor for infinity. Phrases like “as numerous as the grains of sand in the Ganges” are used to describe the count of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, or immeasurable merits. During his lifetime, the Buddha crossed this river many times. The Lalitavistara Sūtra notes that once, the Buddha had no money to pay a ferryman; upon hearing this, King Bimbisara decreed that all monastics be exempted from travel fees thereafter.

Rites of the Holy River

Varanasi (Benares) has 80 cremation grounds. The riverfront Ghats (stone steps) are considered the most sacred places to bathe, pray, and meditate.

  • Purification: Hindus believe the water washes away the sins

of many lifetimes. Many elderly people come to Varanasi to spend their final days, hoping to die and have their ashes scattered in the river to achieve liberation.

  • Morning Rituals: At dawn, pilgrims gather to bathe and offer palmfuls of water back to the river as a sacrifice, seeking harmony with the divine.

3.5.   LUMBINI (NEPAL)

On May 5, 1997, during a sweltering 45°C summer break, the author set out on a second journey with friends Lal Zikpuii, Yankna, and Sanya (a Nepali native) to visit the remaining holy sites: Lumbini, Kushinagar, and Vaishali.

Crossing the Border

The group traveled from Delhi to Gorakhpur by train, then took a bus to the Sonauli border. A complication arose because the author had forgotten their FRRO (Foreigner Regional Registration Office) residency book. Despite having a passport and visa, the Nepali police were strict. Only after three hours and a round of “Pepsi” for the officers was the group allowed to cross.

Arrival at Lumbini

Lumbini was 40 km from the border, but the local bus, crowded with villagers and goods, took over two hours. Arriving in pitch darkness, the author had to negotiate a Jeep ride to the Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu (Vietnamese Temple).

  • The Host: They were welcomed by Venerable Huyen Dieu, the abbot who built the grand Vietnamese temple in
  • Vietnamese Flavors: After a long journey, the group enjoyed a traditional Vietnamese meal of sour soup with

morning glory, eggplant, and okra, which even the Indian and Nepali friends enjoyed.

  • The Location: Lumbini, located in modern-day Nepal, is the site of the first of the four great events of the Buddha: his Birth. Historically, this region was a branch of the Silk Road, connecting the hills of Nepal to Ladakh and

Summary of the Four Great Holy Sites

 

Event

Location

Modern Country

Birth

Lumbini

Nepal

Enlightenment

Bodh Gaya

India

First Sermon

Sārnāth

India

Parinirvana

Kushinagar

India
  • OVERVIEW HISTORY OF LUMBINI

The history of Lumbini, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, is a unique chronicle of a sacred site that shifted from a flourishing garden to a forgotten forest, only to be rediscovered through the lens of archaeology and international diplomacy.

The birth of Prince Siddhartha in Lumbini is a pivotal event in human history, marking the arrival of the “Great Compassionate One.” According to traditional records, he was born on the full moon day of May (Vesak) in 563 BCE.

i.  The Birth and the Garden (6th Century BCE)

In the 6th century BCE, Lumbini was a beautiful garden located between the kingdoms of Kapilavastu (the Sakyas) and Devadaha (the Koliyas).

  • The Nativity: According to tradition, Queen Maya Devi was traveling to her parental home when she went into She bathed in the Pushkarini (Sacred Pond) and, while holding the branch of a Sal tree, gave birth to Prince Siddhartha.
  • The Seven Steps: It is said the infant took seven steps, and lotus flowers bloomed at each footprint, a moment symbolizing the beginning of his final

ii.   The Ashokan Pilgrimage (249 BCE)

The most critical historical grounding for Lumbini comes from the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.

  • The Ashoka Pillar: Accompanied by his spiritual guide, Upagupta, Ashoka visited the site and erected a sandstone pillar with a Brahmi inscription.
  • The Royal Proclamation: The inscription explicitly identifies the site: “Hida Budhe jate Sakyamuni” (“Here the Sakyamuni Buddha was born”). Ashoka also exempted the village of Lumbini from certain taxes and reduced its grain tribute to 1/8th.

ii. Accounts of Chinese Pilgrims (4th – 7th Century CE)

For centuries, Lumbini remained a vibrant center for monks and pilgrims.

  • Faxian (403 CE): Described the pond where the Queen bathed and noted the presence of the Ashokan pillar (though he mentioned it had been struck by lightning).
  • Xuanzang (636 CE): Provided a more detailed account, describing the “Oil River,” the Ashoka Pillar (now topped by a horse capital), and several stupas marking specific events of the Buddha’s

iv. Decline and “The Great Silence” (14th – 19th Century CE)

Following the decline of Buddhism in India and the subsequent Islamic invasions, Lumbini was eventually reclaimed by the Terai jungles. The site was forgotten for nearly 500 years, known only to local villagers as a place associated with a mother-

goddess figure (Rummindei).

5. Rediscovery and Modern Development (1896 – Present)

  • 1896 Discovery: General Khadga Shamsher Rana (Governor of Tansen) and German archaeologist Alois Führer rediscovered the Ashoka Pillar, confirming the site’s
  • The Kenzo Tange Master Plan (1978): To transform Lumbini into a global peace center, the UN and the Nepal government commissioned Japanese architect Kenzo Tange to design a master plan.
  • UNESCO World Heritage (1997): Lumbini was officially designated a World Heritage Site, recognizing its “outstanding universal value.”

Comparison of Key Historical Evidence

 

Evidence Type

Source/Period

Historical Significance

 

Epigraphic

Ashoka Pillar (249 BCE)

The definitive “birth certificate” of the Buddha.

 

Literary

Xuanzang’s Records (7th c.)

Detailed topographical map used for modern rediscovery.

 

Archaeological

 

Maya Devi Temple

Excavations revealed a series of structures dating back to the 3rd century BCE.
  • THE SACRED BIRTH AT LUMBINI

Lumbini (known locally as Rummindei) is situated in modern- day Nepal, nestled in the foothills of the Himalayas. Historically, it was a beautiful garden located between the kingdoms of Kapilavastu and Devadaha.

  • The Journey: Following the custom of the time, Queen Maya left the palace of King Suddhodana to return to her parents’ home for the birth. While resting in the Lumbini grove, she felt the onset of
  • The Miraculous Birth: Standing and holding a branch of an Asoka tree (Vô ưu), the Prince was born from her right side, remarkably clean and radiant.
  • The Seven Steps: Immediately after birth, the infant Prince took seven steps toward the east. At each step, a lotus flower bloomed to support his feet. Pointing one hand to the sky and one to the earth, he famously declared:

“Above the heavens and below the earth,

I alone am the World-Honored One.

This is my final birth;

I shall end the cycle of suffering for all beings.”87

The Queen could not help but be filled with wonder at the miracles unfolding around the birth of the Prince. At that moment, the world was saturated with joy. The skies were clear and radiant. A brilliant light shone everywhere. Fragrant flowers bloomed, casting a sweet scent through the air. Birds sang, and bees danced among the blossoms. Celestial music echoed softly throughout the heavens.

“O Humanity! Do you know that

an Enlightened One has just been born?

O Sentient Beings! A Being of Great Kindness, Great Compassion, Great Wisdom,

clip_image047.gif

  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon (Tripitaka), Dirgha Agama (Kinh Trường A Hàm), Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1991, p.

Võ Đình Cường, The Golden Light of the Buddha (Ánh Đạo Vàng), 1983. See website: http://www.buddhismtoday.com

and Great Virtue has appeared upon this earth!

 

 

O joy, what joy for all the realms of heaven!

For O sentient beings, an Udumbara flower has bloomed,

and a wondrous, dazzling light shines bright!

 

 

O everyone! Travel to the south of the Himalayan mountains, for it is precisely there that a Buddha has been born!88

3.5.3.  HISTORICAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

After being lost to the jungle for centuries, Lumbini was rediscovered in 1886 by the renowned archaeologist Alexander Cunningham.

a.  The Ashoka Pillar

When King Ashoka visited Lumbini in 249 BCE (the 20th year of his reign), he erected a sandstone pillar to mark the exact birthplace. The inscription remains visible today:

“King Piyadasi (Ashoka)… came in person and offered worship, because here the Buddha, the sage of the Sakyas, was born.”89

The pillar was originally topped with a horse statue, though it was later struck by lightning and broken, as noted by Xuanzang.

b.  Accounts of Chinese Pilgrims

  • Faxian (5th Century): Described the garden where the Queen bathed and the well (now a pond) where the dragons provided warm and cold water to wash the
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Võ Đình Cường, The Golden Light of the Buddha (Ánh Đạo Vàng), 1983. See website: http://www.buddhismtoday.com
  • Lumbini Development Trust, Genesis Publishing, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1988, p. 5

“Fifty li east of the palace city lies a royal garden named Lumbini. It was here that the Queen bathed, and afterward, walking north for about twenty paces, she held onto the branch of a tree. As she gazed toward the east, the Prince was born from her right side. Upon birth, the Prince took seven steps, and two dragon kings sprouted water to bathe his body. At that spot, a well was later excavated, which now remains as large as a lake.”90

  • Xuanzang (7th Century): Provided detailed measurements of the Ashoka Pillar, the Asoka tree (already withered by his time), and the Puskarni Pond where the Sakya clan He also noted the presence of two springs that miraculously appeared to provide water for the newborn.

“To the south, there is also a stupa marking the spot where Sakra (the King of Gods) received the Bodhisattva into his arms. As the Bodhisattva was born from his mother’s right side, the four heavenly kings wrapped him in golden silk, placed him upon a golden tray, and presented him to his mother, saying: “O Queen, be joyful, for you have given birth to a child of such auspicious marks.

Bên cạnh bảo tháp này và cách đó không xa là một trụ đá lớn do vua A-dục (Ashoka) dựng nên, phía trên đỉnh trụ có tạc hình một con ngựa. Về sau, một con rồng hung dữ (có thể ám chỉ một tia sét hoặc thiên tai theo cách gọi dân gian) đã làm gãy đổ trụ đá này. Ngay sát bên cạnh là một dòng sông nhỏ chảy về hướng đông nam mà người dân địa phương gọi là sông Dầu (Oil River). Đây chính là dòng nước tinh khiết mà chư thiên đã hóa hiện để Hoàng hậu tắm rửa sau khi hạ sinh Thái tử.”91

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of Western World, Mortilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1994, p. 1
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of Western World, Mortilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1994, p.ii 24 -

3.5.4.  KEY MONUMENTS OF LUMBINI

  • THE ASHOKA PILLAR

History records that after becoming a Buddhist, King Ashoka abandoned military conquest (Dig-Vijaya) in favor of conquest by Dharma (Dharma-Vijaya). In the 20th year of his reign, he journeyed to Lumbini with his teacher, Venerable Upagupta.

  • Physical Description: The pillar is made of Chunar sandstone, approximately 0.5m in diameter and 5m tall (the original height is unknown as the top is broken). It is now protected by an iron fence. Nearby, a lush flame tree (Delonix regia) provides shade where pilgrims gather to
  • The Inscription: The five-line Brahmi inscription confirms this is where the Buddha, the Sage of the Sakyas, was born. It also notes that Ashoka granted the village of Lumbini a significant tax reduction, requiring them to pay only one- eighth of their produce.

3.5.4.ii.  THE MAYA DEVI TEMPLE (STUPA)

Located to the right of the entrance, this temple is dedicated to Queen Maya.

  • Relief Carving: Inside is a life-sized stone relief depicting the Queen holding an Asoka tree branch, with the newborn Prince Siddhartha standing on a lotus. Due to local Hindu customs, the statue is often covered in colorful pigments (red, yellow, blue) and flower petals offered by
  • Origin: Archaeologists believe the current structure was built by the Naga Malla kings (11th–15th century) over the original foundation laid by King

3.5.4.iii.  THE SACRED POND (PUSKARNI)

To the right of the Ashoka Pillar is a rectangular pond (approx. 10m x 6.7m) with stone steps. This marks where Queen Maya

bathed after giving birth. Legend says that every Sakya king, before his coronation, had to perform a ritual bath in these holy waters.

 
  clip_image076.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương meditating

at the Lumbini Pond, Nepal, in May 05, 1997.

 

3.5.4.iv.       THE    LUMBINI    LIBRARY    &    RESEARCH CENTER

Built with German financial support, this international-standard library serves as a Buddhist Cultural Research Center. It is the most comprehensive repository of Buddhist and Hindu documents in Nepal and provides scholarships to scholars worldwide, continuing the mission of spreading “Peace and Non-Violence.”

3.5.4.v.  THE LUMBINI MUSEUM

The museum displays archaeological artifacts unearthed at the site, including statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, terra cotta bowls, and ancient stone fragments.

The Three Zones of Lumbini Today:

  1. Lumbini Village: The residential area for local
  2. Monastic Zone: An international area featuring temples from Vietnam, Tibet, India, Japan, China, Korea, Thailand, and Sri
  3. The Sacred Garden: The core area containing the Ashoka Pillar, the Bodhi tree, and the sacred

3.5.5.THE RUINS OF KAPILAVASTU (TILAURAKOT)

From Lumbini, the author traveled 19 km by bus and rickshaw to reach Kapilavastu, the capital where Prince Siddhartha lived until age 29.

  • The Atmosphere: The journey revealed a landscape of humble, impoverished villages with thatched huts and dry, cracked Local children greeted the travelers with “Namaste!”
  • The Ruins: Arriving at sunset, the author found a somber and desolate scene. Very little remains of the once-mighty capital, only scattered bricks overgrown with vegetation and rusted wire
  • Reflection: The sight of the ruins served as a powerful reminder of impermanence; a once-fortified kingdom had been erased by time, leaving only a few instructional signs to guide visitors through the historical remnants of Siddhartha’s

The historical and archaeological recovery of Kapilavastu is a

journey of piecing together ancient texts with the red soil of the Nepal-India border.

3.5.6.THE REDISCOVERY OF THE “BROWN CITY”

In 1896, the archaeologist Fuhrer identified the location of Kapilavastu by following the travel diaries of Chinese pilgrims (Faxian and Xuanzang) and Pāli scriptures like the Digha Nikaya.

  • Location: The description of a settlement near a large Sal forest at the foot of the Himalayas matches the ruins found at Tilaurakot (Nepal).
  • Etymology: Scholar Senart suggested the name Kapilavastu means the “Brown City.” This is physically evident today, as the soil surrounding the ruins has a distinct reddish-yellow hue caused by iron carbonate.

3.5.7.THE PROPHECY OF ASITA

Buddhist literature, such as The Golden Light of Dharma (Ánh Đạo Vàng), vividly recreates the atmosphere of the city during the Prince’s birth. While the city celebrated with banquets, lanterns, and festivals, the hermit Asita descended from the Himalayas to visit the palace.

  • The Dream: Asita recalled Queen Maya’s dream of a six- tusked white elephant entering her right side, a divine omen of a son with incomparable merit.
  • The Prophecy: Upon seeing the infant, Asita bowed eight times but then He clarified that his tears were not for the Prince, but for himself: he was too old to live long enough to hear the Prince’s future teachings.
  • The Two Paths: Asita noted the 32 Marks of a Great Man on the Prince. He predicted that if the Prince remained in the palace, he would become a Chakravartin (Universal

Monarch); however, the “swastika” on his chest signaled he would instead become a Buddha, leading all beings to liberation.

3.5.8.A PRINCE OF COMPASSION The Legend of the Wounded Swan

This episode serves as a powerful testament to Siddhartha’s innate commitment to Ahimsa (non-violence) and the sanctity of life.

  • The Act of Mercy: When Devadatta shot a white swan, Siddhartha did not see a “trophy,” but a suffering being. He used herbs and honey to heal the bird, establishing his role as a protector.
  • The Ethical Debate: The conflict between the cousins reached the royal Devadatta argued for the right of the hunter, while Siddhartha argued for the right of the savior.
  • The Verdict: An elder settled the dispute with a profound moral truth: “Life belongs to the one who saves it, not the one who tries to destroy ”
  • The Vow of Liberation: Demonstrating selfless love, Siddhartha released the swan back to the Himalayas, pledging to spend his life defending the weak and the

3.5.9.  THE SELECTION OF PRINCESS YASODHARA

As the Prince approached the age of 19, King Suddhodana sought to anchor his son to the worldly life of a monarch through marriage.

  • The Royal Strategy: Concerned by the prophecy of Siddhartha becoming an ascetic, the King organized a grand assembly at Kapilavastu, inviting the most beautiful princesses of the land.
  • The Prince’s Aura: Despite the splendor and fine silks of the contestants, Siddhartha remained detached. His “divine aura” was so overwhelming that the candidates felt humbled, unable to bridge the spiritual gap between
  • The Fated Encounter: Princess Yasodhara (Da-du-đà-la) was the last to arrive. Her noble grace and vibrant beauty genuinely moved the Prince.
  • The Ultimate Gift: Finding all other prizes exhausted, Siddhartha gave Yasodhara his own jeweled necklace. This gesture symbolized the beginning of their union and a temporary bridge between his spiritual nature and his royal

3.5.10.  THE FOUR SIGHTS: ENCOUNTERING SUFFERING

Prince Siddhartha lived as a Bodhisattva within a beautiful palace, surrounded by luxury. However, a divine calling to fulfill his spiritual destiny persisted within him. The reality of life was revealed to him during his journeys through the four city gates:

a.The Sight of Sickness

While traveling, the Prince came upon a man groaning in agony, trembling and struggling for breath under a tree.

  • The Act of Compassion: Ignoring royal protocol, Siddhartha rushed to the man, cradling his head and wiping his
  • The Revelation: His charioteer, Channa, identified the illness as the plague and warned the Prince of its contagious He explained that countless diseases, like cholera and smallpox, strike humans silently and without warning.
  • The Prince’s Reflection: Siddhartha realized that health is fragile and that humans live in a state of “constant fear and anxiety,” with no one truly able to guarantee a happy

tomorrow.

b.The Sight of Death

Following the encounter with sickness, the Prince witnessed a funeral procession where a corpse was being carried to the riverbank for cremation.

  • The Law of Impermanence: Channa explained the grim reality of the physical body: it eventually burns to gray ash or becomes “a feast for the insects in the earth.” He noted that life can be severed by something as small as a fallen tile or a “poisonous wind.”
  • The Finality of the Moment: Siddhartha looked back at the sick man he had just tried to help, only to find the man had taken his last breath.
  • The Shift in Consciousness: Seeing ted List - he “true face of existence,” Siddhartha wept tears of He understood that every pleasure contains the seed of pain and every meeting leads to separation.

c.The Turning Point

These encounters transformed the Prince’s worldview. He concluded that the worldly life he had been leading was a distraction from a much larger crisis facing humanity.

“Pleasure only opens the door to pain; in every meeting, the seed of separation is already sown… I must find a path of liberation for humanity.”

This realization was the catalyst for his decision to leave the palace, as he could no longer find peace in a world governed by such profound suffering. He recognized that his destiny lay not in ruling a kingdom, but in finding the cure for the “plague” of existence itself.

3.5.11.  THE GREAT RENUNCIATION

After seeing the four sights, an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and finally a serene monk sitting under a tree, the Prince decided to leave worldly life. Even the news of his son’s birth, whom he named Rahula (meaning “fetter” or “bond”), could not deter him.

At midnight, he took one last look at his sleeping wife and son, vowing to return after attaining enlightenment. He rode out of the palace with Channa on his horse, Kanthaka. At the banks of the Anoma River, he cut his hair with his sword and exchanged his royal robes for the tattered rags of a hunter (a deity in disguise).

Kanthaka, overwhelmed by the sorrow of parting from his master, died of a broken heart by the river. Channa returned to the palace weeping, leaving the Prince alone in the deep forest to begin his quest for truth.

3.5.12.  THE TRAGIC FALL OF KAPILAVASTU

The city of Kapilavastu met a tragic end shortly after the Buddha’s time. It was destroyed by Prince Vidudabha (Tỳ- lưu-li), the son of King Pasenadi of Kosala and a Sakya servant girl who had been disguised as a princess.

Having been insulted by the Sakya clan during a childhood visit, where they washed his footprints with milk as if he were impure, Vidudabha vowed to “wash the city with the blood of the Sakyas.”

The Buddha intervened twice, sitting under a withered tree with no shade to meet the advancing army. When asked why he sat there, the Buddha replied: “O King, the shade of one’s kindred is remarkably comfortable.”

Moved by this, the Prince withdrew his troops. However, on the third attempt, the Buddha remained silent, and Kapilavastu was razed. Only a few survivors managed to flee toward the

Kathmandu Valley.

3.5.13.  THE FALL OF THE SAKYA CLAN

The records of Xuanzang note that the massacre of the Sakyas by King Vidudabha resulted in the deaths of 9,990 people. Not even newborn infants were spared from the cruel blades.

Account of Faxian (5th Century CE)

Faxian described a desolate Kapilavastu, a city lying along the riverbanks beneath the snow-capped Himalayas.

  • The Ruins: He found brick walls surrounded by a moat. While the palace walls showed signs of a high former culture, the city had neither a king nor subjects.
  • Markers of History: He identified the Eastern Gate, where Siddhartha departed worldly life, and the sites of legendary events: where Devadatta killed the elephant, where the Prince’s arrow struck the earth after flying 30 li (creating a spring), and where 500 Sakyas converted to
  • Commemoration: Stupas were built at locations where the earth shook six times, where the Buddha met his father after enlightenment, and where the Sakya clan was

3.5.14.        DETAILED ACCOUNT OF XUANZANG (7th Century CE)

Xuanzang provided a more meticulous record of the kingdom, which had a circumference of about 4,000 li.

  • State of the Capital: Over ten cities within the kingdom lay in utter ruin. The capital’s inner city was 14–15 li in circumference, built of red Though the soil was fertile and the few remaining people were industrious, over 1,000 monasteries lay abandoned.
  • The Palace Remains: Inside the royal enclosure, stupas

marked the specific quarters of King Suddhodana and

Queen Maya.

  • Monuments of the Prince’s Youth:
    • The Elephant Toss: At the South Gate, a stupa marked where Siddhartha threw a dead elephant to prove his strength during the royal competitions.
    • The Prince’s Family: Stupas held images of Yasodhara (the Prince’s wife) and Rahula (his son).
    • The Great Departure: At the Southeast Gate, a stupa depicted the Prince riding his white horse, Kanthaka, as he left the palace
    • The First Meditation: About 40 li northeast of the city was the site where a young Siddhartha sat under a tree during the Plowing Festival. His father was frightened to see that while the sun moved, the tree’s shadow remained stationary over the meditating

3.5.15.   LEGENDARYLOCATIONSAND THE MASSACRE

  • The Massacre Site: To the southeast of the city lay hundreds of thousands of stupas marking where the Sakyas were Their bodies were piled like straw, and their blood flowed into lakes. It is said that the gods (Indra) moved the hearts of survivors to collect and bury the remains.
  • The Nyagrodha Grove: South of the capital was the garden where the Buddha, after enlightenment, reunited with his father and preached the Dharma.
  • The Temple of the Kneeling Statue: Outside the city stood a temple of Isvara (Indra). Legend says that when the infant Siddhartha was brought there for a blessing, the stone statue stood up and bowed to him, only returning to its seat once the Prince had left.
  • The Arrow Well (Tiễn Tĩnh): Southeast of the city, a stupa marked the “Arrow Spring.” After the Prince’s arrow split an iron target, it pierced the earth so deeply that a fountain of crystal-clear water erupted. In Xuanzang’s time, the sick would drink this water or use the mud from the spring to heal their ailments.

3.5.16.  THE REMAINING RELICS OF KAPILAVASTU

  1. The City of Kapilavastu (Thành Ca-tỳ-la-vệ)

The site consists of large rectangular brick foundations. A plaque at the eastern corner marks it as the Eastern Gate, where Prince Siddhartha departed to begin his spiritual quest.

  • The Identification Debate: There is an ongoing scholarly debate regarding the exact location of the Currently, two sites are the primary candidates:
    • Tilaurakot, Nepal: Located 27 km west of Lumbini and

4.8 km northwest of Taulihawa. Most pilgrims visit this site as the traditional capital.

  • Piprahwa, India: Located in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh, 25 km from the Nepal

ii)  Niglihawa (Birthplace of Kanakamuni Buddha)

Located about 6–7 km north of Kapilavastu, this village features a pond surrounded by thickets where two fragments of an Ashoka Pillar were discovered in 1895.

  • The Inscriptions: The upper fragment (4.5m) bears 14th- century inscriptions from King Ripu Malla, including the mantra “Om Mani Padme Hum.” The lower part (1.52m) contains an Ashokan edict stating that the King enlarged the stupa of Kanakamuni Buddha in his 14th regnal year and erected the pillar in his 20th year.
  • Significance: This pillar confirms the location of the 23rd

Buddha’s birth and indirectly helps fix the position of Kapilavastu.

iii)   Gotihawa (Birthplace of Krakucchanda Buddha)

Situated 4 km southwest of Kapilavastu, this is the birthplace of

Krakucchanda Buddha (the 4th of the seven past Buddhas).

  • The Monument: Archaeologist Carlyle discovered a broken Ashoka Pillar here in The remaining stump is 3.04m tall. It is also believed to be the spot where Shakyamuni Buddha reunited with his father after attaining Enlightenment.

iv)   Kudan (The Meeting Place - Nigrodharama Grove)

Located 1 km southwest of Taulihawa, excavations by P.C. Mukherjee revealed wall foundations and water tanks.

  • Historical Context: This is identified as the Nigrodharama Garden, where King Suddhodana met the Buddha. It may also mark the site where Mahāpajāpatī Gotami (the Buddha’s foster mother) offered him a golden-threaded saffron

v)  Sagarhawa (Site of the Sakya Massacre)

Located 5 km north of Taulihawa, this site features a rectangular pond called Lamba Sagar.

  • History: Discovered by Fuhrer in 1898, this tragic location marks where King Vidudabha of Kosala massacred the Sakya clan. Hundreds of stupas were once erected here to honor the victims.

vi)   Baradhawa (The Arrow Well)

Located 6.4 km southwest of Taulihawa, this village contains ancient relics and is believed to house a stupa with the Buddha’s relics.

  • The Legend: A nearby pond is identified as the Arrow Well, created when Prince Siddhartha’s arrow pierced the earth during the royal archery competition, causing a spring of clear water to gush forth.

Summary of Significant Past Buddhas mentioned:

Buddha

Site

Significance

Kanakamuni

Niglihawa

23rd Buddha of the present age; site marked by Ashoka.

Krakucchanda

Gotihawa

4th of the seven past Buddhas.

Shakyamuni

Kapilavastu

The historical Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama).

3.5.17.    THE MODERN REVIVAL OF LUMBINI

Lumbini lay forgotten from the 14th century until the 1960s. Its modern transformation was sparked by a visit from UN Secretary-General U Thant and King Mahendra of Nepal.

The historic visit of United Nations Secretary-General U Thant and his discussions with King Mahendra92 regarding the development of Lumbini are considered the starting point for bringing this sacred site to the global stage. King Mahendra donated over 100,000,000 Rupees for the restoration of Lumbini.

 
  clip_image047.gif


The Lumbini Development Trust is the agency responsible for maintaining and accelerating the development of the site. A master plan was designed by the renowned architect Professor Kenzo Tange, who created a new layout over the ancient grounds that has since become a historic blueprint. This plan truly internationalized the sacred site, transforming it into a place of global significance and solemnity. Through the cooperation

  • Lumbini Today & the Future Prospects – A Report on the Second Seminar on Lumbini Development, Chitrakar Society, Kathmandu, Nepal, 27-6-1998, 16.

and financial support of the United Nations Development Programme, the government has fostered relationships with many nations worldwide to preserve this heritage.

 
  clip_image045.gif

Historical and Modern Development Context

  • U Thant’s Influence: As a devout Buddhist and the third Secretary-General of the UN, U Thant was moved to tears during his 1967 visit to the neglected He was the primary catalyst for the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini.
  • The Kenzo Tange Master Plan (1978): Tange, a Pritzker Prize-winning Japanese architect, designed the site based on Buddhist The plan consists of three main zones:

The Lumbini Development Trust

The trust oversees the “Master Plan” to ensure that as different nations (such as Vietnam, Thailand, China, and Germany) build their representative monasteries, the spiritual and archaeological integrity of the site remains intact.

  • The Master Plan: Designed by the famed Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, the plan transformed the ruins into a “Sacred Garden” for the world.
  • International Monastic Zone: Many countries have built temples reflecting their unique cultures, including:
    • Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu: Led by Huyen Dieu; it was one of the first modern international temples.
    • Linh Son Temple: Another major Vietnamese presence supported by the Linh Son Congregation in

◇               Chinese, Burmese, Thai, and Japanese Temples:

Creating a diverse spiritual atmosphere.

Today, Lumbini is a UNESCO World Heritage site, serving not only as a historical monument but also as a global center for peace, meditation, and Buddhist study.

Summary of Key Relics currently at Lumbini

 

Relic

Significance

Maya Devi Temple

Enshrines the exact spot of the birth and ancient brick foundations.

Ashoka Pillar

The primary archaeological proof of the Buddha’s historical birth.

Puskarni Pond

The sacred pool where Queen Maya bathed before giving birth.

Marker Stone

A stone found deep within the temple foundations indicating the precise birth spot.

 

3.6.   KUSHINAGAR:

THE SITE OF THE MAHAPARINIRVANA

Kushinagar is today a peaceful town in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Despite the intense summer heat, which can soar to 45°C, the atmosphere remains profoundly serene and solemn.

clip_image078.jpg

3.6.1.  OVERVIEW HISTORY OF KUSHINAGAR

The history of Kushinagar (ancient Kusinārā) is uniquely somber and sacred. While Lumbini marks the beginning, Kushinagar marks the Mahaparinirvana, the Great Decease, of the Buddha.

a. THE FINAL JOURNEY (5th Century BCE)

When the Buddha was 81 years old, he and the Venerable Ananda left Vulture Peak to journey toward Northern India. After staying overnight at Nalanda, he crossed the Ganges River at Varanasi for the last time and proceeded to the village of Beluva, near Vaishali.

The Final Rainy Season Retreat

While staying at Beluva for the rainy season retreat (Vassa), the Buddha fell gravely ill. He revealed to Ananda that his physical strength was waning due to old age and predicted that he would enter Parinirvana within three months.

The Three Hints to Ananda

In Vaishali, the Buddha dropped a profound hint to Ananda three times regarding the possibility of extending his life:

“Ananda, whoever has developed, practiced, and mastered the Four Bases of Power (Iddhipada), making them a vehicle and a foundation, could, if he so desired, remain for an aeon (kappa) or the remainder of an aeon. The Tathagata has mastered these four bases. If he wished, the Tathagata could remain for an aeon.”93

However, Ananda, whose mind was clouded at that moment, failed to understand the suggestion and did not invite the Buddha to stay. Consequently, the Buddha relinquished the will to live further. When Ananda finally realized the gravity of the words and begged the Buddha to remain, the Buddha refused, stating it was too late, as he had already promised Mara that he would depart in three months.

The Final Gathering at Mahavana

Despite his illness, the Buddha traveled to the Kutagarasala (Gabled Hall) in the Great Forest (Mahavana) of Vaishali. He requested that all monks in the vicinity assemble so he could deliver his final summary of the path to liberation.

The 37 Factors of Enlightenment

The Buddha exhorted his disciples to preserve and practice the core teachings he had realized, categorized as the 37 Factors of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiya-dhamma), to ensure the longevity of the Dhamma for the benefit of gods and humans:

 
  clip_image047.gif


“O Monks, those Dhamma which the Tathāgata has realized and taught to you, you must learn them thoroughly, realize them through practice, develop them, and propagate them so that this holy life may endure and last for a long time, for the welfare of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world, and for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans. And what are those Dhamma realized by the Tathāgata? They are the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, I, p. 30.

Four Right Efforts, the Four Bases of Power, the Five Faculties, the Five Powers, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path.”94

These serve as the “compass” for practitioners to reach liberation.

  • The Last Convert: at the Sal Grove of the Mallas of Kusinārā, despite his physical weakness, the Buddha accepted the wanderer Subhadda as his final
  • The Final Words: Lying between two Sal trees, he gave his last exhortation to the monks: “All conditioned things are subject to decay. Strive on with diligence” (Vayadhammā sankhārā appamādena sampādetha).

3.6.2. WHY DID THE BUDDHA CHOOSE KUSHINAGAR?

Before passing away, the Buddha explained to Venerable Ananda why he chose this small town over larger, more powerful kingdoms:

  • The Mahasudassana Sutta: To recount the virtues of a great Chakravartin (Universal Monarch) who ruled this land in the distant past.
  • Converting Subhadda: To guide Subhadda, the final disciple to be directly ordained by the Buddha before his passing.
  • Distribution of Relics: The presence of the Brahmin Drona,
  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, vol II, 160. The 37 Factors of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiyadhamma)
  • Four Foundations of Mindfulness: Body, Feelings, Mind, and Mental
  • Four Right Exertions: Preventing and overcoming evil; arising and increasing good.
  • Four Bases of Power: Desire, Energy, Consciousness, and
  • Five Faculties & Five Powers: Faith, Energy, Mindfulness, Concentration, and
  • Seven Factors of Enlightenment: Mindfulness, Investigation, Energy, Joy, Tranquility, Concentration, and Equanimity.
  • Noble Eightfold Path: Right View, Resolve, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, and

who possessed the authority and wisdom to mediate and fairly divide the Buddha’s relics among the various kingdoms.

  • Karmic Connection: In previous lifetimes, the Buddha had laid down his life in this location seven times; this was to be the eighth and final

3.6.3. THE LASTMEALAND BOUNDLESS COMPASSION

When the Buddha arrived at the village of Pava, Chunda (Kunda), the son of a metalsmith, offered him a meal containing Sukara-maddava (often translated as “tender boar’s meat” or “fragrant mushrooms”). After eating, the Buddha instructed Chunda to bury the remains, noting that no one in the realms of gods, humans, Maras, or Brahmas could digest such food except for a Tathāgata.

Soon after, Chunda was filled with deep sorrow and regret, fearing he had caused the Buddha’s illness. The Buddha consoled him, praising the boundless merit of his offering:

“There are two offerings of food that bear equal merit and equal fruit, far surpassing all others. What are the two? One is the meal before the Tathāgata attains Supreme Enlightenment, and the second is the meal before the Tathāgata enters Parinirvana. These two offerings result in increased longevity, beauty, happiness, fame, rebirth in heaven, and great authority.”95

Historical and Botanical Notes

  • Sukara-maddava: This term remains a subject of academic While “mushrooms” is a common modern interpretation (as seen in your text), some scholars suggest “pork” or “truffles.” The core spiritual point is the Buddha’s compassion in protecting others from tainted food.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The Kakutthā River: Located between Pava and Kushinagar, this is where the Buddha took his final bath and
  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-180.

drank water before reaching the Sala Grove.

  • Two Peerless Offerings: This teaching establishes the importance of intention (Cetanā). Even though the meal led to illness, Chunda’s intention was pure, making his merit equal to that of Sujata, who offered the milk rice before the

On the road to Kushinagar, the Buddha stopped in the village of Pava. A blacksmith named Chunda offered the Buddha his final meal, which included a dish known as Sukara-maddava (interpreted as forest mushrooms or truffle).

The Illness: After eating, the Buddha became severely ill with dysentery. He instructed Chunda to bury the remaining food, as only a Tathagata could digest it.

Infinite Compassion: Seeing Chunda’s overwhelming grief and regret, the Buddha comforted him. He explained that two meals in a Buddha’s life bring the greatest merit: the meal before Enlightenment and the meal before Passing. He thus relieved Chunda’s guilt, transforming a painful event into an act of supreme blessing.

3.6.4.        THE    FINAL    WATER   AND    THE    GOLDEN RADIANCE

Following the meal at Chunda’s home, the Buddha’s illness became severe. While traveling toward Kushinagar, he rested by a small stream. Though the water had been muddied by 500 passing wagons, the Buddha sent Ananda to fetch a drink. Miraculously, as Ananda approached, the water became crystal clear. 96

The Encounter with Pukkusa

 
  clip_image047.gif


While resting, Pukkusa, a young nobleman of the Malla clan and former disciple of Āḷāra Kālāma, approached. He praised

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-180.

the deep concentration of his former teacher, who once sat undisturbed while five hundred carts passed by. The Buddha then recounted a greater feat of concentration:

“Pukkusa, what is more difficult? To remain conscious but unaware of carts passing, or to remain conscious and undisturbed while a torrential rainstorm rages with thunder and lightning that kills two farmers and four oxen nearby?”97

The Buddha shared that he had once experienced such a storm at Atumā and remained in perfect tranquility. Deeply moved, Pukkusa declared: “My faith in my former teacher has been swept away like a leaf in a great wind.” He took refuge in the Triple Gem and offered the Buddha two sets of golden-hued robes.

The Radiance of the Tathāgata

When Ananda placed the golden robes upon the Buddha, he was astonished to see the robes’ brilliance fade in comparison to the Buddha’s skin. The Buddha explained that a Tathagata’s skin shines with such clarity only twice:

  1. The night he attains Full Enlightenment.
  2. The night he enters Mahaparinirvana.

“Ananda, there are two occasions when the skin of the Tathāgata becomes exceedingly bright and pure: the night he attains Supreme Enlightenment and the night he enters Parinirvana. Tonight, Ananda, in the final watch, at the Upavattana of Kushinagar, the Tathāgata will pass away.”98

3.6.5.  THE ENTRANCE INTO PARINIRVANA

 
  clip_image047.gif


The Buddha arrived at the Upavattana Sala Grove of the Mallas in Kushinagar. He instructed Ananda to prepare his bed

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-180.
  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon, Translated by Thích Minh Châu, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), Volume I, 1991, pages 665–6.

between two Twin Sala Trees, with his head pointing North.

 
  clip_image080.jpg

Twin Sala Trees, Mahaparinirvana Stupa,

Kushinagar, May 07 1997.

 

The Final Instruction on Worship

As the trees bloomed out of season and divine music filled the air, the Buddha clarified:

“Ananda, this is not how one truly honors the Tathagata. The monk, nun, or lay disciple who practices the Dharma correctly and lives according to the Teachings… they are the ones who truly honor and worship the Tathagata with the highest offering.”

Then, he instructed the assembly of monks to take the Precepts as their Teacher after his passing:

“Ananda, the Dhamma and the Vinaya that I have taught and proclaimed, after I am gone, let these be your Teacher.”

“O monks, all conditioned things are impermanent. Strive on

with diligence.”

These were the final words of the Tathāgata. Then, the Blessed One entered the first jhāna. Emerging from the first jhāna, he entered the second. Emerging from the second, he entered the third. Emerging from the third, he entered the fourth. Emerging from the fourth, he entered the Sphere of Infinite Space. Emerging from the Sphere of Infinite Space, he entered the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness. Emerging from the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, he entered the Sphere of Nothingness. Emerging from the Sphere of Nothingness, he entered the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception. Emerging from the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception, he entered the Cessation of Perception and Feeling (Saññā- vedayita-nirodha).

Emerging from the Cessation of Perception and Feeling, he re- entered the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception. From there, he descended through the Sphere of Nothingness, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, and the Sphere of Infinite Space, returning to the fourth jhāna. From the fourth, he descended to the third, the second, and the first.

Emerging from the first jhāna, he ascended once more to the second and the third. Finally, entering the fourth jhāna and emerging from it, the Blessed One immediately attained Parinirvāṇa.99

Commentary and Context

  1. The Final Exhortation
 
  clip_image047.gif


The Buddha’s final words emphasize two pillars of the spiritual

  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon, Translated by Thích Minh Châu, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), Volume I, 1991, pages 665–6.

life:

  1. The Nine Meditative Attainments (Samāpatti)

The text describes a systematic “ascending and descending” through the levels of concentration to demonstrate the Buddha’s total mastery over the mind even at the moment of death.

  • 1st - 4th Jhāna: The Rupa-Jhānas (Meditations of Form).
  • 5th - 8th Jhāna: The Arupa-Jhānas (Formless Meditations).
  • 9th Level: Saññā-vedayita-nirodha, the highest state where all mental activity and feelings cease.

3.  Parinirvāṇa from the Fourth Jhāna

It is significant that the Buddha did not pass away from the highest formless state or the state of cessation. Instead, he returned to the Fourth Jhāna. This state is characterized by Equanimity and Mindfulness (Upekkhā-sati-pārisuddhi), representing a perfect balance of mental clarity and stillness, providing the most stable foundation for the final transition into the “Unconditioned.”

4.  CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE The Four Holy Sites

The Buddha identified the four places that faithful followers should visit to cultivate merit:

  1. Lumbini: Where the Buddha was
  2. Bodh Gaya: Where the Buddha attained Enlightenment.
  3. Sārnāth: Where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of
  4. Kushinagar: Where the Buddha entered

3.6.6.  THE FUNERAL AND THE RELICS

 

The Malla clan spent six days honoring the body. On the seventh day, they prepared for cremation at the Makuta-Bandhana Stupa. However, the pyre would not ignite until Mahakassapa, the Buddha’s great disciple, arrived to pay his final respects.

Once Mahakassapa circumambulated the pyre three times and bowed at the Buddha’s feet, the fire ignited spontaneously. The body burned completely, leaving behind no ash, only the sacred relics (Sarira), which looked like pearls or grains. Divine rain and water from the Sala trees eventually extinguished the flames.

“Venerable Mahākāśyapa arrived at the Mallas’ shrine, Makuta-Bandhana, and approached the funeral pyre of the Buddha. With his robe arranged over one shoulder, he clasped his hands in reverence, circumambulated the pyre three times, and prostrated at the feet of the Buddha; the five hundred monks followed suit. Once the salutations were complete, the funeral pyre ignited spontaneously.

As the physical body of the Buddha burned, from the outer skin to the inner skin, the flesh, the tendons, and the fluid between the joints, everything was consumed, leaving behind neither ash nor soot, but only the sacred bone relics (Sarīra). Just as when oil burns, it is completely consumed without leaving ash or charcoal. All five hundred layers of wrapping cloth, including the innermost and outermost layers, were burned away. When the Blessed One’s body was fully consumed, a stream of water poured down from the heavens, and another stream gushed forth from the Sāla trees to extinguish the pyre. The Mallas of Kushinagar also used water scented with many kinds of perfumes to douse the flames. Then, the Mallas placed the Buddha’s relics in their assembly hall for seven days, honoring, revering, and making offerings with dances, songs, music, and many garlands of incense.”100

 
  clip_image047.gif


Historical and Symbolic Context

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-5.

a.  The Role of Mahākāśyapa (Đại Ca-Diếp)

Mahākāśyapa was the most senior of the Buddha’s disciples and was traveling from Pava to Kushinagar when the Buddha passed. Tradition holds that the funeral pyre would not ignite until he arrived to pay his final respects. This event signifies the passing of the “leadership” of the Sangha to Mahākāśyapa, who would soon after preside over the First Buddhist Council.

b.   The Spontaneous Ignition and Extinguishing

The spontaneous combustion of the pyre and its miraculous extinguishing by celestial and nature-bound water (from the sky and the trees) emphasizes the Buddha’s status as a Mahāpurusha (Great Man). It illustrates that even the elements, fire and water, obeyed the cosmic order (Dhamma) surrounding his passing.

c.The Nature of the Relics (Xá lợi)

The text notes that the body left no ash, only “bone relics.” In Buddhist tradition, these relics are classified into different types:

  • Pearl-like relics: Small, crystalline spheres of various
  • Bone fragments: Larger pieces from the forehead, teeth, or

These relics were eventually divided into eight portions and distributed among the various kingdoms, leading to the construction of the first great Stupas.

d. Makuta-Bandhana Stupa

The Makuta-Bandhana (meaning “The Binding of the Crown”) was the coronation hall of the Malla kings. Choosing this site for the cremation signified that the Buddha was treated with the highest honors of a Chakravartin (Universal Monarch).

Key Figures and Terms

 

 

Term/Person

Role/Significance

Ananda

The Buddha’s loyal attendant and primary interlocutor during the final days.

Subhadda

The last person to be ordained as an Arahant by the Buddha himself.

Mahakassapa

The disciple whose arrival was necessary for the cremation to begin.

Sala Trees

The “Twin Trees” that bloomed out of season to honor the Buddha’s passing.

 

Chunda

The blacksmith whose final meal was declared equal in merit to the meal before Enlightenment.

This narrative emphasizes that the Buddha’s passing was not a moment for despair, but a final lesson on the law of Impermanence (Anicca) and the importance of self-reliance in the practice of the Dharma.

3.6.7.  THE HOLY RELICS (SARĪRA)

In the cremation of enlightened Arahants, relics (often described as crystal-like) are frequently found, which are not visible to the naked eye. The term Sarīra is used to refer to these physical remains. The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta explicitly states that after the Buddha’s cremation, there were “no ashes… only bone relics remained.”101 Archaeologists have indeed discovered bone fragments belonging to the Buddha.

In the context of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, sarīra originally referred to the Buddha’s physical body, but after cremation, it specifically designated his relics. To avoid ambiguity, the term śarīra (relating to the body or concrete physical matter) is often most appropriate when referring to these holy remains.

3.6.8.  THE MERIT OF WORSHIPING RELICS

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-5.

Venerating the Buddha’s relics is not for the sake of the Buddha himself, but for the merit of those who come to pay respects and offer with a sincere heart. As stated in the scriptures:

“When one remembers: ‘This is the stupa of the Tathagata’s relics…’, their mind becomes peaceful. Upon the dissolution of their body, they will be reborn in a higher realm, among the devas. This is why stupas are built at crossroads.”102

3.6.9.  THE DIVISION OF THE RELICS

When the news of the Buddha’s Parinirvana spread, the leaders of eight nations sought to claim his relics. A Brahmin named Dona acted as an intermediary, reciting a verse to advise them:

“Listen, O Lords, to my word. Patience was taught by the Buddha. It is not good that there should be strife over the distribution of the Enlightened One’s remains. Let us unite in harmony and love, joyfully dividing the relics into eight portions.”

Dona divided the relics into eight equal parts for the messengers of:

  1. Magadha, ruled by King Ajātasattu.
  2. The Licchavīs of Vesāli.
  3. The Sakyas of Kapilavatthu.
  4. The Bulis of Allakappa.
  5. The Kolis of Rāmagāma.

6.      The Brahmin of Vethadīpa.

  1. The Mallas of Pāvā.
  2. The Mallas of Kusinārā (Kushinagar).

Each city built a stupa to enshrine its portion. Dona himself built

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon, Translated by Thích Minh Châu, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), Volume I, 1991, pages 665–6.

a stupa for the vessel used to measure the relics. The Moriyās of Pipphalavana arrived too late and received only the charcoal from the funeral pyre; they built a stupa for the embers in their city. Thus, ten stupas were initially erected: eight for the relics, the ninth for the vessel, and the tenth for the embers. Later, King Ashoka is said to have further divided these portions to build 84,000 stupas across Asia.

3.6.10.          HE    ARCHAEOLOGICAL     RECOVERY    OF KUSHINAGAR

Following the Buddha’s passing, Kushinagar was annexed by Magadha. It eventually fell into decline until the 3rd century BCE, when King Ashoka revitalized it with stupas and pillars.

Chronicles of the Pilgrims

  • Faxian (399–414 CE): Noted three stupas and two pillars, indicating a thriving center of
  • The Gupta Era (4th–6th Century CE): Buddhist art reached its zenith. An artist named Haribhadra carved the magnificent Reclining Buddha statue (approx. 413–455 CE) that remains the centerpiece of the Nirvana Temple
  • Xuanzang (629–644 CE): Found the city in He identified the home of Chunda the blacksmith and the Great Brick Stupa containing the Reclining Buddha. He also noted an Ashoka pillar nearly 200 feet tall, though it was tilting.
  • The Dark Ages: Between the 7th and 12th centuries, royal support Kushinagar was eventually razed by Islamic invasions in the 13th century and swallowed by the jungle.

Modern Rediscovery

  • Alexander Cunningham (1861): Confirmed that the site

known locally as Kasia was indeed ancient Kushinagar.

  • C.L. Carlleyle (1876): Excavated the massive brick mound and rediscovered the shattered Reclining Buddha statue, which was later painstakingly restored.
  • Ph. Vogel (1904–1907): Formally excavated the foundations of ten monasteries dating from the 4th to the 11th centuries.
  • Reconstruction (1956): The current Nirvana Temple was completed to celebrate the 2,500th Buddha It features a vaulted roof and large windows, housing the restored Reclining Buddha.

Current Landmarks

  • Nirvana Stupa: Located immediately behind the temple, bone fragments were discovered at its base.
  • Ramabhar Stupa: A large structure located to the east, identifying the traditional site of the Buddha’s cremation.
  • Modern Viharas: In the 21st century, Myanmar Buddhists and others have restored various monuments, including the small stupa marking the spot between the Twin Sala Trees where the Buddha drew his final

This history highlights Kushinagar’s journey from a sacred grove to a forgotten ruin, and finally to its status today as a global center of pilgrimage for those seeking to reflect on the Buddha’s final teaching of Impermanence.

3.6.11.  MODERN MONUMENTS IN KUSHINAGAR

  1. THE NIRVANA TEMPLE

Less than 100 meters from the main gate stands the Nirvana Temple, the primary sanctuary in Kushinagar where monastics and pilgrims gather for worship. In 1956, to commemorate

the 2,500th Anniversary of the Buddha’s Birth, the Indian government reconstructed the temple with a vaulted dome and large barred windows on four sides.

  • The Discovery: Carlleyle first discovered this site in 1876, finding a statue of the reclining Buddha with a broken pedestal. The statue is 6.1 meters long, carved from a single block of red sandstone. It represents the Buddha entering Nirvana, lying on his right side and facing West.
  • Artistic Details: The Buddha rests peacefully, facing North, with his head cradled by his right The palms and soles are carved with lotus patterns, one of the 32 major marks of a Great Man.
  • Symbolic Figures: On the western wall of the temple are three small niches. The left figure (a woman with long hair and a grieving expression) likely represents the Malla clan mourning the Buddha’s passing. The central and right figures (serene monastics) represent those who have transcended desire and remain composed in the face of death.
  • History: An inscription on the pedestal attributes the offering of the statue to Venerable Haribala during the reign of King Kumargupta (413–455 CE). Recent 1976 excavations found fragments of bone and charcoal, suggesting the site was burned during historical invasions.

ii.   THE NIRVANA STUPA

Located directly behind the temple, the Nirvana Stupa was built over the very spot where the Buddha passed away between the Twin Sala Trees.

  • Structure: This is a 72-meter-high brick monument. Excavations found charcoal and ash within the earliest inner layers, confirming its role as a cremation or memorial site.
  • Votive Offerings: A copper plate found inside contains the

Nidana Sūtra (Sūtra of Causes) in Sanskrit, further crediting Venerable Haribala with the temple’s development. The stupa was fully restored in 1927 and again in 1972 through the generous contributions of Burmese Buddhists.

 
  clip_image082.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương meditating at the Parinirvana Temple, Kushinagar,

remembering the grace of the Buddha, May 7, 1997.

 

iii.  ARCHAEOLOGICAL ENCLOSURE

The area surrounding the Stupa and Temple is a vast archaeological zone filled with the brick foundations of ancient monasteries and shrines. These ruins serve as physical evidence of the flourishing Buddhist activities that took place here between the 4th and 11th centuries.

iv.  MATHA-KUAR SHRINE (The Passing of the Prince)

About 200 meters northwest of the Nirvana Stupa is the Matha- Kuar Shrine. It houses a 3.05-meter-high statue of the Buddha carved from black stone, dating to the 5th century.

  • The Name: “Matha-Kuar” translates to “The Passing of the Prince.” Local tradition holds that even after the Enlightenment, the Sakya clan still viewed the Buddha as their beloved Prince.
  • Iconography: The statue is in the Bhumisparsha Mudra (Earth-witness gesture), representing the moment the Buddha conquered Mara. Local belief identifies this as the spot where the Buddha gave his final teaching before moving to the Sala grove to enter Parinirvana. The statue, found broken in two by Carlleyle, was restored and enshrined in a modern temple by a Burmese delegation in 1927.

Monument

Main Feature

Historical Context

Nirvana Temple

6.1m Red Sandstone Reclining Buddha

Offering by Haribala (5th Century).

Nirvana Stupa

45m high brick mound

Enshrines the spot of the Parinirvana.

Matha-Kuar

3m Black Stone Preaching Buddha

Commemorates the “Prince” of the Sakyas.

v.    THE CREMATION STUPA (RAMABHAR STUPA)

Located approximately 1.6 kilometers east of the Matha-Kuar Shrine, on the road from Kasia to Deoria, lies the site where the Buddha’s physical body was cremated.

  • Structure: This is a massive circular mound, shaped like a giant drum, with a diameter of 34.24m sitting on a base of 24m. It stands 15.4m high.
  • Symbolism: The architecture reflects the harmony of the universe, representing the five elements of life: the square base for Earth, followed by Space, Fire, Water, and Light.
  • Surroundings: The stupa is situated within a beautifully maintained flower Its diameter is twice that of the

main Nirvana Stupa, and the area is dotted with the ancient foundations of monasteries and temples.

vi.  THE KUSHINAGAR MUSEUM

Situated across from the Sri Lanka-Japan Monastery, the museum is an imposing building nestled among lush greenery. It houses a vast collection of Buddha statues and precious artifacts unearthed by archaeologists at Kushinagar, providing a historical bridge to the city’s ancient Buddhist glory.

3.6.12.  INTERNATIONAL TEMPLES IN THE VICINITY

Kushinagar is a vibrant hub of modern Buddhist activity, with temples from various national traditions:

i.  LINH SON TEMPLE (VIETNAM)

The first temple encountered on the road to the sacred site. Originally built between 1948-1950 by a Chinese nun as “Song Lam Tu,” it was later entrusted to Venerable Huyen Vi (Linh Son Congregation, France).

  • Features: A 2m-tall outdoor Avalokiteshvara statue and miniature models of the Four Great Holy
  • Activities: It offers comfortable lodging for pilgrims and is active in local charity, such as providing food for the poor and building schools for needy children.

ii.   BURMESE TEMPLE

Located adjacent to Linh Son Temple, this large complex was built in 1945.

  • Architecture: Features artistic, sweeping curved roofs. A highlight is a rectangular lotus pond with a central “One- Pillar”
  • Art: The brick perimeter walls are decorated with colorful frescoes depicting the life of the Buddha.

iii.  TIBETAN TEMPLE

Located near the Nirvana Temple, this modest complex features a lecture hall on the ground floor and a main sanctuary on the upper level. While it provides housing for traveling Tibetan monks, the site remains quiet compared to Tibetan centers in Bodh Gaya or Lumbini.

iv.  THAI TEMPLE

Currently under construction, adjacent to the Tibetan Temple. At the time of the author’s writing, monastics were residing in temporary tents to oversee the project’s development.

v.  SRI LANKA-JAPAN MONASTERY

Managed by Sri Lankan monastics, this temple features a circular vaulted architecture inspired by the Nirvana Temple.

  • Sanctuary: Contains a Buddha statue in the Japanese style and walls adorned with beautiful Japanese-style paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
  • Facilities: The monastery hosts an International Meditation Center, a free medical clinic, and guest houses for

Kushinagar remains a site of profound reflection, where the ancient silence of the cremation grounds meets the chanting of modern international communities, all honoring the Buddha’s final passage into peace.

vi. THE THAI TEMPLE AT KUSHINAGAR

Returning from the Japanese temple toward the Nirvana Temple, one encounters the Thai Temple, supported by the Thai government.

  • Grandeur: This is arguably the most magnificent Thai temple in all of It features a vast sanctuary on the first floor with golden vaulted roofs that showcase the pinnacle

of Thai Buddhist art.

  • Atmosphere: The grounds are designed like a royal garden, with sprawling courtyards, lush greenery, and weeping It also serves as a center for education and residence for a large community of monastics.

vii.  SUMMARY OF MODERN KUSHINAGAR SITES

 

Site

Type

Key Significance

Ramabhar Stupa

Archaeological

The historic site of the Buddha’s cremation.

Kushinagar Museum

 

Educational

Preservation of 1,500 years of unearthed artifacts.

Linh Son / Burmese

 

Religious

Active centers for Vietnamese and Burmese pilgrimage.

International Zone

 

Cultural

Represents the global unity of the Buddhist faith.
  • GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCE

 

From Kushinagar to

Distance (km)

Gorakhpur

55 km

Lumbini

175 km

Varanasi (Sārnāth)

270 km

Sravasti

274 km

 

3.7.                            THE JOURNEY TO AMARAVATHI

The pilgrimage shifted from North India to the state of Andhra Pradesh to visit the great Amaravathi Stupa.

Transit at Vijayawada

 

The group traveled by train from Madras toward Hyderabad, disembarking at Vijayawada at 3:30 AM.

Indian Tea Culture: While waiting at the station, the group enjoyed “Masala Tea,” brewed with fresh milk, sugar, and ginger. In India, tea is a fundamental part of daily life, with “tea time” being a strictly observed tradition for everyone from children to professors.

Vijayawada: Located along the Krishna River, this industrial center serves as the gateway for pilgrims visiting Amaravathi. It is often referred to as the “Sanchi of Andhra Pradesh.”

The Great Stupa of Amaravathi

The group hired a taxi for the 30 km journey west of Vijayawada. The road passed through arid fields and thorny forests, reflecting a humble, rural landscape.

Historical Origins: Originally known as Dhammakada or Dhanyakataka, Amaravathi was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty. King Ashoka is said to have sent the elder Mahadeva to establish a stupa here.

3.7.1.     OVERVIEW HISTORY OF THE AMARAVATHI STUPA

The Great Stupa of Amaravathi (also known as Maha- Chaitya) was once one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist monuments in the world. Located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, its history spans over two millennia, from its humble origins to its eventual discovery as a “lost” treasure.

1.  Origins and Early Development

  • Foundation (c. 3rd Century BCE): Most historians believe the stupa was first established during the reign of Emperor Ashoka the Archaeological evidence suggests it

began as a modest structure intended to house sacred relics of the Buddha.

  • The Satavahana Golden Age (1st – 2nd Century CE): Under the patronage of the Satavahana kings, the stupa was significantly expanded. It was during this period that the monument became a masterpiece of architecture, featuring the distinctive white limestone (often called “Palnad marble”) and intricate carvings that define the Amaravathi School of Art.

2.  Architectural Significance

The stupa was famous for its sheer scale and “Ayaka” platforms, four rectangular projections at the cardinal points that held five pillars each, representing the five major events in Buddha’s life.

  • Diameter: Approximately 50 meters.
  • Height: Nearly 30 meters.
  • Artistic Style: Unlike the more austere Sanchi Stupa, Amaravathi featured highly decorative, narrative reliefs depicting the Jataka tales (previous lives of the Buddha) and the life of Gautama

3.  Decline and Abandonment (14th – 18th Century)

Shift in Patronage: As Buddhism declined in India and Hinduism regained prominence under subsequent dynasties, the stupa lost its financial and royal support.

  • Decline and Recovery: By the time Xuanzang visited in 693 CE, the site was In the 19th century, much of the site was damaged as locals took stones for building materials. Today, the surviving railings and sculptures depicting the Jataka tales (the Buddha’s past lives) are preserved in the Madras Museum and the local Amaravathi Museum.
  • Neglect: By the 14th century, the site was largely

Over the centuries, it became covered by earth and vegetation, eventually appearing as a large mound known locally as Deepaladinne (The Hill of Lights).

4.  Rediscovery and “The Amaravathi Marbles”

  • Continued Devotion: Inscriptions indicate that as late as 1344 CE, Sri Lankan pilgrims were still visiting and performing repairs on the stupa, proving its enduring sanctity over a millennium.
  • 1797: The site was rediscovered by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, a British He found local people using the ancient stones to build modern houses.
  • Excavation and Loss: Throughout the 19th century, various excavations were carried out. Unfortunately, many of the finest sculptures were shipped away to prevent further local
  • Current Locations: Today, the surviving pieces (frequently called the Amaravathi Marbles) are Large collections are held in:
    • The British Museum (London)
    • The Government Museum (Chennai)
    • The Archaeological Museum (Amaravathi)

The Amaravathi Stupa was once larger and more ornate than the famous Sanchi Stupa. Its artistic style, characterized by intricate marble carvings and delicate narratives, influenced Buddhist art across East and Southeast Asia.

The exploration of Amaravathi reveals that Buddhism was not just a northern phenomenon but a deeply rooted culture that flourished in the south, producing some of the world’s most sophisticated architectural wonders.

3.7.2.WORSHIP AT THE AMARAVATHI STUPA

We walked around the stupa to pay our respects and take photos for our records. This ancient monastery was built in a circular style, similar to the Peace Pagodas built by the Japanese at Vulture Peak and Vaishali. Today, the stupa remains a massive mound of earth and sand, topped by a dome and surrounded by its foundation. In a few places, fragments of marble still glisten with a faint luster. Surrounding the stupa are stone slabs carved with scenes from the life of the Buddha and the Sangha. Tradition holds that the Buddha himself once spent a rainy season retreat at this very location.

After taking commemorative photos, we visited the Amaravathi Museum. It has a modest perimeter but is quite charming, with green grass and colorful flowers scattered about. Since it didn’t open until 10:00 AM and we had 30 minutes to wait, we wandered around the immediate area. We saw a small, sparse market where a few people sat on the ground selling food covered in flies… A few small shops sold a scattering of items, and a bus sat empty waiting for passengers while the driver sat listlessly, looking out into the distance with a neutral expression. The life of the people here is so poor, monotonous, and pitiful.

I met a few Indian men arriving at work at the museum. Since the gatekeeper had not yet arrived, we struck up a conversation. Because they work at a museum and often host foreign delegations, they knew a bit of English. I asked one gentleman how much he earned per month. He said the government paid him 3,000 Rupees. Ah! That is a decent wage for this area. Since those working here are relatively bright and know some English, the salary is stable. He mentioned he had just started the job and was very happy to have it, as he had to support a stay-at-home wife and seven children in school. I was shocked that salary my would be gone in an instant, but fortunately, it is stable compared to other jobs where the pay is much lower.

Once the doors opened, he kindly guided us through every section. Once again, I had the honor of viewing and bowing before the Buddha’s Relics (the first time being in Sārnāth with the delegation of the Venerable and Monk BC). The relics were kept in a glass case, shimmering and about the size of a soybean. I purchased a book about the history of the Amaravathi Stupa and its remaining ruins.

We gave the gentleman 20 Rupees as a tip and bid him farewell. Halfway back, I noticed a very large university on the right: Nagarjuna University. They revere Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, the founder of the world-famous Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school of Emptiness, which is significant not just to Buddhism but to other academic and philosophical fields. At various Indian universities, Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka philosophy attracts many students, including non-Buddhists, who come to research and study. The campus was large and peaceful, surrounded by lush greenery and multi-colored flowers. Since it was summer, the students were away on break, making it feel quiet; everything looked brand new.

3.7.3.  THE JOURNEY TO HYDERABAD

We returned to the town of Vijayawada exactly at noon. According to our schedule, we weren’t supposed to leave for Hyderabad until the next morning, and we had already pre- purchased bus tickets. However, seeing that we had enough time to make it and feeling quite restless in the stifling heat, we decided that leaving was better than staying. We took the loss, exchanged our tickets, and left immediately at 3:00 PM. This allowed us just enough time to eat, shower, and set off without wasting any more time.

The bus had air conditioning and even featured videos for entertainment along the way. Since this was a true “Deluxe” bus, not just in name, but in quality, the passengers were very polite, well-dressed, and clean. After traveling for over an hour, I

noticed the bus had not yet stopped for a restroom break. Because of the scorching heat, we had consumed an incredible amount of soda and lemon water. Unable to bear it any longer, Lal Zikpuii shouted for the driver to let us off. The driver replied in Hindi, “Mein jalti vuktee hun” (I am about to stop). I whispered to Lal Zikpuii that when they say “about to,” it hasn’t happened yet, and when they say “already there,” it means it’s coming soon, who knows how much longer it will be? We insisted on getting off immediately.

The driver finally stopped, and we scrambled out. Going to the bathroom on the side of the road meant simply finding a bush to hide behind. Unfortunately, the driver stopped in an area with very few trees (I wondered if he was playing a prank on us!). We had no choice but to run quite a distance to find a thicket. After resolving our “nature call,” we felt as light as clouds and hopped back to our seats, only to realize that only the four of us girls had gotten off. No one else on the bus had moved. “Their kidneys must be very strong,” I whispered to Yansa and Lal Zikpuii.

Just as the bus turned the left corner, it arrived at a large restaurant and stopped. The attendant announced a 30-minute break for food and rest. Ah! It finally dawned on me that’s why no one else got off earlier. They were regulars on this route and knew the stop was coming, whereas we, on our first trip ever, had forced the driver to stop because we couldn’t wait. Realizing our mistake, we looked at each other and laughed it off.

3.8.   NAGARJUNA’S ISLAND (NĀGĀRJUNA-KOṆḌA)

3.8.1.  OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF NĀGĀRJUNA- KOṆḌA

Nāgārjuna-koṇḍa, located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, is one of India’s most significant archaeological sites.

Historically known as Vijayapuri, it served as the capital of the Ikshvaku Dynasty (2nd–3rd Century CE) and was a premier center for Buddhist learning, named after the great philosopher Nāgārjuna.

 
  clip_image084.jpg

i.  A Sanctuary Saved from the Waters

The modern history of Nāgārjuna-koṇḍa is defined by a massive engineering and preservation feat:

  • The Submergence: In the 1960s, the construction of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam threatened to submerge the entire
  • The Rescue: Archeologists undertook a monumental project to excavate and relocate the ruins to higher ground.
  • The Island Museum: Today, the site is unique because the museum and reconstructed monuments are situated on an island in the middle of a man-made lake, accessible only by

ii.  Architectural and Religious Significance

Nāgārjuna-koṇḍa was a melting pot of Buddhist sects, primarily the Mahayana tradition. It mirrored the “Amaravathi style” but

added its own regional flair.

  • The Mahachaitya: The Great Stupa was the heart of the Excavations revealed a tooth relic, believed to be of the Buddha, encased in gold and silver caskets.
  • Monasteries and Temples: The valley contained over 30 Interestingly, it also housed some of the earliest structural Hindu temples, showing a period of religious coexistence.
  • The Amphitheater: One of the most unique finds was a tiered, Roman-style amphitheater, suggesting influence from maritime trade with the Roman Empire.

iii.  The Legacy of Acharya Nāgārjuna

The site is named after the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school.

  • Philosophy of Emptiness (Śūnyatā): Nāgārjuna’s teachings at this site revolutionized Buddhist thought, arguing that all phenomena are “empty” of intrinsic nature and exist only in dependence on other factors.
  • The University: Like Nālandā in the north, Nāgārjuna- koṇḍa functioned as a massive university attracting students from Sri Lanka, China, and Gandhara.

Key Archaeological Features

 

Feature

Significance

Swastika-shaped Stupa

A rare architectural form symbolizing the wheel of Dharma and auspiciousness.

 

Ayaka Platforms

Rectangular projections at the four cardinal points, unique to the Krishna River valley style.

 

 

Feature

Significance

Memorial Pillars (Chaya- stambhas)

Pillars erected in memory of deceased royalty and monks, providing rich historical data.

 

Inscriptions

Written in Brahmi script, these detail the heavy patronage by Ikshvaku Queens, who were often the primary sponsors of Buddhist works.
  • TRIP TO NĀGĀRJUNA-KOṆḌA

Our bus arrived in Hyderabad just after 9:00 PM, June 02 1997. Like the town of Vijayawada, Hyderabad is located in the state of Andhra Pradesh, bordering Karnataka to the west. Hyderabad is a significant center of Islamic culture. The twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh and are famous for being the former seat of the wealthy and powerful Nizams.

The city is home to bustling markets. Regarding cleanliness and wide roads, I personally find Hyderabad superior to Madras, even though Madras is ranked as India’s fourth-largest city and Hyderabad the fifth. The ancient Islamic monuments and temples date back to the 16th and 17th centuries. Unlike the cities further south, Hyderabad still retains much of a 19th- century atmosphere. It is unique among southern cities for using Urdu as a primary language due to its Islamic heritage. In my view, there are more tourists here than in Madras, and the hotels and restaurants are more well-appointed.

By the time we settled in, it was past 11:00 PM, and the room was not quite to our liking. We stayed for one night as it was late, but the next morning we set out to find a better, more affordable place.

a.  The Hyderabad City Tour

First, we joined a bus tour organized by the Hyderabad Tourism Company. It ran from 7:30 AM to 6:00 PM and cost 100 Rupees per person. The tour visited Buddha Purnima, the Qutub Shahi Tombs, Golconda Fort, the Salar Jung Museum, Mecca Masjid, Charminar, the zoo, a handicraft center, and Birla Mandir. Among these, the most remarkable was the Golconda Fort.

b.   Golconda Fort

This is one of the most famous and geographically complex fortresses in India. Its current structure dates back to the 16th and 17th centuries, though its origins likely trace back to earlier Hindu dynasties like the Yadavas and Kakatiyas. In 1512, Sultan Quli Qutub Shah declared independence and made Golconda his capital.

The city remained the capital until 1590, when the dynasty moved to the new city of Hyderabad. In the 17th century, the Mughal armies from Delhi attacked to demand tribute. Abul Hasan, the last Qutub Shahi king, held off a seven-month siege by Emperor Aurangzeb, but the fort finally fell due to internal betrayal.

The fortress is built on a granite hill 120 meters high, surrounded by crenelated walls made of massive stones weighing several tons. The main gates are reinforced with iron spikes to prevent elephant attacks. One of the most fascinating features is the system of acoustics: a clap in the Grand Portico can be heard clearly at the Durbar Hall on the very summit, allowing for rapid communication during attacks. Climbing to the top is exhausting, and the view from the peak is dizzying, making the people below look like tiny specks.

Returning to the noisy city of Hyderabad, we hired a taxi for the next day to visit Nagarjunakonda (the Hill of Nagarjuna). This was the primary reason for our visit to Madras and Hyderabad.

The cost was 1,200 Rupees for the entire day.

We set off at 5:00 AM while the mist still hung in the air. The car glided smoothly over wide, newly paved roads. We saw many luxurious tour buses, a stark contrast to the rural roads of Vijayawada. Because this is a major tourist route for both Indians and foreigners, everything felt more upscale and clean.

Nagarjunakonda is located 150 kilometers southeast of Hyderabad, along the Krishna River. It was one of the largest and most important Buddhist centers in South India from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. To this day, the area is named after the famous master Nagarjuna.

Nagarjuna was one of the most brilliant and intellectual monks in history. He established a monastery here and taught the Sangha for nearly 60 years in the 2nd century CE. He founded the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, a philosophy renowned worldwide. Its influence resonates not only within Buddhism but across global philosophy, and it continues to be studied by both monastics and laypeople today.

Let us now look into a brief biography of his life and his immense contributions to Buddhism:

c.Key Travel Information

 

Route

Distance/Time

Cost (approx.)

Hyderabad City Tour

7:30 AM - 6:00 PM

100 Rupees/ person

Hyderabad to Nagarjunakonda

150 km (One-way)

1,200 Rupees (Full-day taxi)

State Comparison

Hyderabad (5th largest city)

Madras (4th largest city)

 

  • THE BIOGRAPHY       OF       BODHISATTVA NAGARJUNA (LONG-THỌ)

Nagarjuna, also known as Long Thắng (Dragon Success) or Long Mãnh (Dragon Courage), belonged to the Naga (Dragon) clan of South India. He was born around the 2nd century CE into a Brahmin family.

i.  Origins of His Name

According to the Biography of Nagarjuna, his mother gave birth to him beneath an Arjuna tree. Thus, his name was formed by combining Naga (representing his clan) and Arjuna (the tree), resulting in Nagarjuna.

ii.  Youth and Renunciation

In his youth, Nagarjuna was exceptionally intelligent, mastering the Brahmin scriptures and the arts of magic. The legend tells of a time when he and three friends used the art of invisibility to enter the royal palace for pleasure. The King, discovering the intrusion, ordered the guards to shut the gates and lash out with swords throughout the empty space of the palace. His three friends were killed, but Nagarjuna survived by hiding behind the King’s own crown. Realizing the grave consequences of his desires, he repented and sought ordination in a mountain cave.

iii.  The Legend of the Dragon Palace

After ordaining at Mount Gridhrakuta (Vulture Peak), an elderly monk presented him with Mahayana scriptures. Though Nagarjuna was delighted, he felt his understanding was incomplete and traveled extensively to seek further teachings.

While meditating in a crystal room surrounded by water, the Great Naga Bodhisattva took pity on him and invited him to the Underwater Dragon Palace. There, the Naga King opened the Seven Jewel Lotus and taught Nagarjuna the profound meanings of the Vaipulya Mahayana Sūtras. Nagarjuna studied

intensely for 90 days, attaining a deep realization of the Dharma. It is recorded in the Records of the Western Regions that he brought back the vast and inconceivable Avatamsaka Sūtra (Hoa Nghiêm) to share with the world.

3.8.4.           PHILOSOPHICAL     CONTRIBUTIONS:     THE MIDDLE WAY

Nagarjuna is recognized not only as the founder of the Three- Treatise School (Tam Luận Tông) but also as the ancestral teacher of eight different Buddhist schools.

i.  The Madhyamaka School (Trung Quán)

He established the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) philosophy, which emphasizes Sunyata (Emptiness/Tánh Không). At that time, his school and the Yogacara (Yoga Practice) school of Maitreya, Vasubandhu, and Asanga were the two main pillars of Mahayana thought.

ii.   The Three Fundamental Treatises

His philosophy is based primarily on three works:

  1. Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Middle Way Treatise)
  2. Dvādaśadvāra-śāstra (Twelve Gate Treatise)
  3. Śata-śāstra (One Hundred Verses Treatise)

iii.   Lineage and Legacy

In the spiritual lineage, Nagarjuna is the 14th Zen Patriarch in the line of 28 Indian Patriarchs following Shakyamuni Buddha. His predecessors included great masters like Mahakassapa (1st), Ananda (2nd), and Asvaghosa (12th).

3.8.5.THE DOCTRINE OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ)

Nagarjuna’s genius lay in his ability to critique traditional, conservative views. His mind was compared to a “Dragon King”

flying through space, refusing to be anchored to any fixed point. This aligns with the Diamond Sūtra teaching: “One should produce a mind that does not dwell anywhere.”

  • Pure Negative Ontology: His philosophy of Emptiness denies the inherent existence of all things. This differs from the Positive Idealism of the Yogacara
  • Key Concepts: Beyond Emptiness, he provided profound insights into Dependent Origination, the Five Aggregates, Karma, the soul, the nature of Reincarnation, and

Philosophical Standing

P.T. Raju, in Idealistic Thought of India, notes:

“As a dialectician, Nagarjuna stands in the first rank, unique in the world.”

Nagarjuna used the bridge of Mahayana thought built by Asvaghosa to develop a comprehensive, razor-sharp system of logic that remains the peak of Buddhist philosophy to this day.

The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam and its historical significance as the “Sārnāth of South India.”

3.8.6.  HISTORICAL AND ACADEMIC SIGNIFICANCE

In 1920, a teacher from the Andhra school, with the help of local villagers, discovered an inscribed pillar in the Nāgārjunakoṇḍa valley, hidden deep within the jungle. This led to the discovery of several brick mounds, and subsequent excavations revealed that the area was exceptionally rich in Buddhist structures and sculptures.

Archaeological Rediscovery

clip_image047.gifA.H. Longhurst, the Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey of India, directed the primary excavations from 1927 to 1931.103 Later, in 1938, T.N. Ramachandran conducted further

  • Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, 54.

digs, solidifying the site’s historical importance.104

The “Sarnath of South India”

These excavations confirmed that Nāgārjunakoṇḍa was the Sarnath of South India, mirroring the importance of Sarnath in Varanasi (North India) as a center for Buddhist learning and art.105

 
  clip_image045.gif

Historical and Cultural Context

Most of the architectural monuments here were constructed during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE under the Ikshvāku dynasty, as evidenced by the names of kings inscribed on stone pillars and coins found at the site.

  • Peace and Prosperity: During this era, the population lived in peace and was deeply devoted to Buddhism. Noble families and generous laypeople commissioned numerous temples and stupas to support the
  • The Satavahana Connection: Discovery of coins from the reigns of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulumavi, and Yajña Satakarni indicates that the hill associated with Nagarjuna (the Great Master of the Middle Way) was already well- known during the earlier Satavahana

Significance of the Site

Nāgārjunakoṇḍa served as a major center for the Mahasanghika school and later became a focal point for Mahayana thought. It is named after the philosopher-monk Nagarjuna, who is said to have spent his final years here. Today, much of the site has been relocated to an island museum to protect it from the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, 71.
  • Buddhist Art of N g rjunakonda, K. Rama, Delhi 5, 1995, p.

i.  The Ikshvaku Dynasty

During the 3rd century, under the powerful Ikshvaku kings, Buddhism reached its peak here. The valley was then known as Vijayapuri, a thriving capital supported by a devout aristocracy.

ii.   Schools of Thought

The hill was home to at least 30 monasteries representing four major Buddhist traditions:

  • Aparamahāvinaseliya: A branch of the Mahāsāṃghika and the primary tradition on the hill.
  • Bahusrutīya: Another Mahāsāṃghika
  • Mahīśāsaka: An early school of
  • Theravāda: Represented by monks traveling from Sri Lanka and Southeast

iii.   Preservation and Discovery

After the decline of the Ikshvaku and Pallava dynasties, the site was swallowed by the jungle. It was rediscovered in 1920 by a local teacher, leading to major excavations by A.H. Longhurst (1927–1931). The findings, including coins from the Satavahana era, confirmed that this was once a hub for scholars from as far as Gandhara, Bengal, and China.

III.8.7. Comparison of the “Two Sārnāths”

 

Feature

Sārnāth (North India)

Nagarjunakonda (South India)

Primary Event

First Sermon of the Buddha

Center of Madhyamaka Philosophy

Associated Figure

Gautama Buddha

Bodhisattva Nagarjuna

Landscape

Forest/Grove near Varanasi

Island in the Krishna River

 

 

Feature

Sārnāth (North India)

Nagarjunakonda (South India)

Era of Influence

6th BCE – 12th CE

2nd BCE – 4th CE

This concludes the exploration of the “Island of Nagarjuna.” Your journey captures the essence of how ancient wisdom survives through time, from the stone inscriptions of the 2nd century to the academic halls of modern universities and the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.

3.8.8.      THE ARCHITECTURAL WONDERS OF THE ISLAND

The excavations at Nagarjunakonda unearthed over 30 monasteries, each with a consistent layout: a central Maha Chaitya (Great Stupa), a Chaitya-griha (shrine), a large lecture hall, and residential cells on three sides.

a.  The Mahācetiya (Great Stupa)

Dated to approximately 246 CE, the Mahācetiya is the spiritual heart of the island. It was commissioned by Princess Chāntisiri of the Ikṣvāku dynasty.

  • The Wheel Design: The stupa’s interior is an engineering marvel, featuring a ground plan shaped like a wheel with spokes and a central hub. This design provided structural support and deep symbolic
  • The Discovery of the Relic: In 1929, A.H. Longhurst discovered a gold reliquary containing a bone fragment of the Buddha, surrounded by gold flowers and pearls. This relic was later gifted to the Mūlagandhakuṭī Vihara in Sārnāth to be enshrined and protected.

b.   Specialized Monasteries

The hill accommodated many specific Buddhist sects, often

funded by noblewomen of the royal court:

  • Mahasasaka Monastery: A square compound with 20 rooms, where a nested reliquary was found (stone inside copper, inside silver, inside gold).
  • Sinhalese Monastery (Chuladhammagiri): Built for monks from Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Unlike the local stone pillars, this monastery featured unique wooden
  • The inscriptions also indicate that numerous Buddhist sects flourished Most notable among them were the Sthaviravāda, a branch of the Mahīśāsakas, the Mahāsāṃghika, the Bahuśrutīyas (precursors to the later Mahāyāna), the Caityakas (a branch of the Mahāsāṃghika), and the Mādhyamika school.106

c.The Symbolism of The Wheel

The artisans at Nagarjunakonda used the number of spokes in the stupa wheels to represent core Buddhist doctrines:

  • 4 Spokes: Representing the Four Noble Truths (Tứ Diệu Đế).
  • 6 Spokes: Representing the Six Perfections (Lục Độ Vạn Hạnh).
  • 8 Spokes: Representing the Noble Eightfold Path (Bát Chánh Đạo).
  • 10 Spokes: Representing the Ten Perfections (Thập Độ).
  • 12 Spokes: Representing the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Thập Nhị Nhân Duyên).
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda, Rama, New Delhi-5, 1995, p.7.

clip_image086.jpg

The Buddha statue at Nagarjunakonda Site: The Philosophy of Sunyata. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, June 02, 1997. It was here, inspired by the legacy of Nāgārjuna, that the author chose “Sunyata” as her first name in the USA.

 

3.8.9.  PHILOSOPHY: BUDDHA VS. NAGARJUNA

The text highlights a fascinating distinction between the “Middle Way” as taught by the Buddha and as refined by Nagarjuna:

Concept

The Buddha’s Middle Way

Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka

Primary Focus

Ethical/Practical: Avoiding self- indulgence and extreme asceticism.

Conceptual/Abstract: Avoiding the duality of existence vs. non- existence.

Era

6th Century BCE

2nd Century CE

Method

The Noble Eightfold Path.

Dialectical negation of “self-nature” (Svabhava).

Lineage of Madhyamaka Masters:

Nagarjuna’s legacy was carried forward by great thinkers such as Āryadeva (3rd C.), Buddhāpālita (5th C.), Bhāvaviveka (6th C.), and Chandrakīrti (6th C.), who founded the Prasangika sub-school.

3.8.10.  PRESERVING THE “SĀRNĀTH OF THE SOUTH”

In the 1950s, a severe drought led the Indian government to build the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. To save the “Sārnāth of the South” from being submerged, a massive 7-year rescue operation (starting in 1954) was launched.

  • Relocation: The most significant structures, including the Mahācetiya, were painstakingly moved from the valley floor to the hilltop, which became an island in the middle of the
  • The Museum: Today, the Nāgārjunakoṇḍa Museum preserves the exquisite limestone carvings that depict scenes from the Jataka tales (the Buddha’s past lives) and the Lalitavistara (the miraculous life of the Buddha).

The island serves as a living museum, preserving the ruins of a valley that was submerged during the construction of the dam.

i.  Spiritual Atmosphere

The island attracts a diverse crowd:

  • Hindu Pilgrims: Many visit the Shiva Temple on the In India, the Buddha is often revered as the ninth avatar of Vishnu, allowing Hindus to integrate Buddhist sites into their own worship.
  • Tourists and Students: People are drawn by the natural beauty, the boat ride, and the historical prestige of Nagarjuna, whose name graces the nearby university and the dam

ii.   Relics of the Master

On the island, you encountered the remains of ancient monastic life:

  • The Living Quarters: Ancient wells and rooms where monks once resided and studied.
  • The Meditation Hall: A stone foundation housing a large 2nd-century Buddha statue. Although its nose and arms are broken, the head and face remain remarkably preserved.
  • Personal Reflection: As you are writing your doctoral thesis on Sunyata (Emptiness), paying respects at this site was a profound moment of “Dharma connection” (cảm ứng đạo giao).

3.8.11.  MODERN FACILITIES AND PILGRIM LIFE

In addition to the historical ruins mentioned, there is now a large museum on the island displaying the precious and exquisite artifacts unearthed during excavations. There is also a park with children’s play equipment like slides and swings. This was likely organized by the Department of Tourism to transform the site into a destination that attracts not just pilgrims, but families and general tourists as well. Such “skillful means” (upaya) make the site more self-sustaining, providing the revenue necessary to maintain and preserve these sacred relics.

Additionally, there is a Shiva Temple located in one corner of the island. Many Hindu followers flock here for worship, particularly during their religious holidays or festivals. The island offers a few guesthouses and restaurants to serve visitors. These accommodations are primarily meant for those who miss the final ferry or those who wish to stay longer for research, as there are many more luxurious and well-appointed hotels back on the mainland.

clip_image088.jpg

A boat carries pilgrims from Nagarjunakonda back to the mainland. Photo in June 02, 1997.

 

3.8.12.  THE JOURNEY TO THE ISLAND

Nagarjunakonda is uniquely located on an island in the middle of the Krishna River. Access is strictly regulated by a ferry service from the mainland.

  • Travel Logistics: The ferry takes about 45 minutes. There are typically two trips a day: departing at 10:30 AM and 1:30 PM, with return trips at 1:30 PM and 4:30 Missing the final boat means staying overnight in the island’s guest houses.
  • The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam: Built in 1960, this massive dam is a feat of modern It is described as being three times wider than the Saigon Bridge in Vietnam. The water flows through regulated sections, appearing like “smooth, shimmering blue silk.” It was named in honor of the Great Master Nagarjuna.

3.8.13.THE JOURNEY BACK TO DELHI

This concluded a pilgrimage of over a month during the summer, lasting from May 5, 1997, to June 10, 1997. We prepared for our return to Delhi. Buying tickets at this stage was stressful because, since we hadn’t known our exact return date, we hadn’t booked in advance. Lal Zikpuii managed to get tickets, but they were on the Waiting List.

The thought of standing for 33 and a half hours, nearly two full days, to reach Delhi was daunting. How could we endure it? We would have to wait and hope for someone to cancel their seat or for someone to take pity on us and let us share a corner of theirs. We were prepared to face this, as we couldn’t afford to wait another week for a confirmed seat.

Fortunately, as a foreigner, I was able to stand in the Foreign Tourist Quota line. The tourism department always reserves a few seats for this priority, which must be paid for in US dollars (it was about 9 USD per ticket). In the end, my status saved all four of us. We secured proper seats for the long journey straight back to Delhi.

3.8.14.  ACADEMIC TRIUMPH AND THE NEXT STEP

Upon returning to Delhi, the weather was incredibly sweltering, but I received my M.A. exam results, and they were quite high. I was overjoyed, feeling as though Master Nagarjuna had blessed my efforts. My heart felt a cool relief despite the heat.

With these marks, I was eligible to proceed directly into the Ph.D. program. I immediately began reading and preparing my synopsis, the research proposal for my doctoral thesis in Buddhist Studies, to submit to the university for my official admission.

The Pilgrimage Completion

 

Detail

Experience / Outcome

Final Site

Nagarjunakonda (The Hill of Nagarjuna)

Travel Note

33.5-hour train journey from South India to Delhi

Academic Milestone

Successfully completed M.A. with high honors

Future Goal

Commencing Ph.D. research on Sunyata (Emptiness)

It is truly a significant milestone in your life, transitioning from a pilgrim walking the sacred grounds to a scholar documenting the profound philosophy of those very sites. Your journey demonstrates the beautiful connection between faith and intellectual pursuit.

 
  clip_image053.jpg

CHAPTER 4

ACADEMIC AND SPIRITUAL LIFE OF VIETNAMESE MONASTICS

T
 

he period between 1995 and 2005 represents a “good time” for the Vietnamese monastic community in Delhi. During this decade, the University of Delhi became a central hub for Vietnamese monks and nuns seeking to integrate traditional

Buddhist practice with modern academic scholarship.

This era was defined by a rigorous dual lifestyle: maintaining the discipline of the Vinaya while navigating the complexities of Indian doctoral research.

 4.1. ACADEMIC PURSUITS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

For many Vietnamese monastics, the primary destination was the Department of Buddhist Studies at the University of Delhi (North Campus).

  • Research Focus: Most students pursued an Phil. or Ph.D., focusing on Comparative Philosophy, Sanskrit, Pali, or the history of Mahayana Buddhism.
  • The “Delhi School” of Thought: Monastics during this time were deeply influenced by renowned Indian scholars. The academic environment encouraged them to look at the Buddha’s teachings through a historical and critical lens, rather than just a devotional one.
  • Language Acquisition: To succeed, monastics had to master English (the medium of instruction) and often Sanskrit or Pali for primary source research. This was a significant transition from the Vietnamese or Chinese-based education many had received back home.

2.  Spiritual Life and “The Temple Apartment”

Living in a foreign, secular environment required a creative adaptation of monastic life.

  • Group Living: Since there were no formal Vietnamese temples in Delhi at the time, monastics typically rented apartments in areas like Kingsway Camp, Vijay Nagar, or Hudson Lane… These apartments functioned as “mini- ”
  • Daily Rituals: Despite the heavy academic workload, the Thanh Quy (monastic regulations) were Rooms were converted into small shrine halls for morning and evening chanting (Tu Chanh Dao).
  • Vegetarianism in Delhi: Maintaining a strict vegetarian diet in the 90s in Delhi was a challenge. Monastics often cooked for themselves, sourcing local Indian vegetables and adapting them to Vietnamese culinary

3.  Cultural Exchange and Identity

  • This decade saw the Vietnamese monastic community acting as informal ambassadors.
  • Community Support:     The     “Vietnamese    Students’

Association in Delhi” (specifically the monastic wing) provided a vital support network. Older, senior monks who arrived in the mid-90s mentored the newcomers arriving in 2005.

  • Pilgrimage as Practice: Living in Delhi allowed for frequent travel to the Holy Sites (Bodh Gaya, Sārnāth, Kushinagar). These were not just tourist trips but spiritual retreats that grounded their academic theories in the physical reality of the Buddha’s
  • Interaction with Tibetans: Many monastics engaged with the Tibetan community in Majnu-ka-tilla, sharing insights between the Vietnamese Thien (Zen) tradition and Tibetan

4.  Legacy of the 1995-2005 Cohort

The monks and nuns who studied in Delhi during this window became a transformative force in Vietnamese Buddhism.

  • Publication and Translation: Many returned to Vietnam or moved to the West (particularly the United States) to publish prolific works based on their Delhi
  • Global Leadership: This generation moved beyond local temple management into international lecturing, translating the Tripitaka into modern Vietnamese, and leading humanitarian missions.

4.4.2. PRESERVING THE VIETNAMESE HERITAGE IN INDIA

The effort to maintain a distinct cultural identity while living in the heart of South Asia can be described in several ways, depending on the focus:

1.  LUNAR NEW YEAR IN DELHI (February 1996)

As the Year of the Pig (1995) drew to a close and the Year of the

Rat (1996) approached, you experienced the vibrant celebrations at the Vietnamese Embassy in Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

  • The Setting: Chanakyapuri is an elite diplomatic enclave characterized by wide, tree-lined streets, quiet villas, and high It stands in stark contrast to the bustling residential areas of Delhi.
  • The Seasonal Shift: The extreme variations in Delhi’s In winter, the sun rises as late as 11:00 AM and sets by 4:00 PM, making a 6:00 PM gathering feel like midnight. This often necessitated shifting your Chinese language classes to later hours.
  • A Taste of Home: The gathering brought together the small Vietnamese community, students, teachers, and officials. Sharing traditional foods like chả giò (spring rolls) and fried tofu while listening to amateur guitar performances provided a rare, warm bridge to “Vietnam ”

2.  ILLNESS AND THE MEDICINE BUDDHA

On February 25, 1996, a severe fever brought a wave of homesickness and vulnerability. This physical suffering became a catalyst for deep spiritual reflection on the Ten Meditations on Obstacles (from the Mười điều Tâm Niệm của Luận Bảo Vương Tam Muội / Precious King Samadhi Manual).107

The Ten Meditations Reframed:

The Buddha’s teaching suggests that obstacles are not to be avoided, but embraced as tools for growth:

  • Sickness: Prevents the rise of excessive
  • Difficulties: Prevents arrogance and strengthens the
  • Hardships: Forges a resilient vow and
  • Mười điều Tâm Niệm của Luận Bảo Vương Tam Muội / Precious King Samadhi Manual. Vietnamese translated by Minh Chánh. https://hoavouu.com/images/luanbaovuongtammuoi.pdf
  • Injustice: Provides a platform for progress without the need for cowardly defense.
  • Refined Perspective: “Take suffering as medicine, hardships as success, and obstacles as liberation.”

Summary of Reflections

 

Experience

Spiritual Lesson

New Year Gathering

The importance of community and cultural roots (Dharma fellowship).

Noisy Hostel

Equanimity; maintaining an internal “Peaceful Mind” amidst external chaos.

Severe Illness

Dismantling ego, pride, and expectations; realizing the “illness of the mind.”

While modern medicine treats the body, the Buddha serves as the Supreme Physician for the “illness of the heart.” By seeing things “as they truly are,” one finds the strength to let go of afflictions naturally.

The Buddha’s teachings are like nectar, a miraculous medicine that makes my spirit stronger than my weak physical body. I have realized that when the mind is permeated with His wonderful teachings, it strengthens a body that is naturally subject to the discord of the Four Elements (soil, water, fire, and wind). Even if the body is ill, the mind remains healthy.

February 27, 1996: Today, as the exams draw near, my fever has finally subsided, and I have begun to pick up my books again. A week ago, Bhikṣuṇī M.H. had been feverish for a month; I stayed in her room for a few days to care for her, after which I fell ill myself. People say a fever is easily contagious, or perhaps it is because the weather is shifting into summer, and people often fall ill during the change of seasons. Regardless, let what belongs to the Four Elements be returned to the Four Elements; the important thing is to maintain mindfulness.

Yet, whenever I hear the “vroom… vroom…” of an airplane overhead (there seems to be a flight passing over the hostel every afternoon) or see the red buses filled with passengers driving by, my heart turns toward Vietnam:

In the afternoon, I stand at the back gate,

Looking toward my mother’s home, my heart aches with

longing...

(Chiều chiều ra đứng ngõ sau Nhớ về quê mẹ, ruột đau chín chiều).

January 27, 1997: This is the first day of the Lunar New Year (Year of the Rat) in Vietnam. It is a day of joy for every child of Vietnam, and a particularly happy day for me personally. At exactly 9:00 AM on New Year’s Day, I received a letter from the Most Venerable Như Điển, the master of Ven. Hanh Tan and Ven. Hanh Nguyen. He is the abbot of Vien Giac Pagoda in Hannover, Germany, a temple with very strong Buddhist activities and many practitioners in Europe.

Venerable Nhu Dien has kindly agreed to provide a monthly stipend of 100 USD to about twelve Vietnamese monks and nuns studying in India, including myself. What could be more joyful! This allows me to feel completely at peace regarding my studies until graduation. I turned toward Germany to prostrate and express my immense gratitude to the Venerable. I also thank Ven. H.C., Ven. D.M., and Ven. H.T. for presenting my situation to him. A new year beginning with such good news is a true blessing; perhaps the hardships of my 33rd year have finally passed.

In this same month, Ven. M.T., Ven. N.T., and Ven. B.C. organized a Seminar group (a specialized research group) to exchange Buddhist knowledge. Each member takes turns presenting topics of interest or their ongoing theses for analysis, critique,

and supplementation. From the nuns’ side, there was Ven. L.T., myself, and Ms. T., a lay Buddhist and a fellow countrywoman from my hometown of Ba Diem. Initially, the group consisted of six members.

During the opening afternoon session, Venerable Minh Tuyên, a Vietnamese monk living in the U.S. who was on a pilgrimage to India’s holy sites and staying temporarily at Ven. M.T.’s hermitage joined us as a witness. On that day, Ven. M.T. gave the first presentation on his thesis topic: “The Concept of Citta in the Tripitaka.”

 

 
  clip_image090.jpg

 

Few members of the Seminar group: (from left) Ven. Thiện Hữu, Ven. Minh Thành, Ven. Bửu Chánh, Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Bhikṣuṇī TN Liên Tường và Ms. Lê Thị Tâm.

 

September 14, 1997: The Association of Vietnamese Students in Delhi was invited to the Vietnamese Embassy for the annual student meeting to report on academic progress and elect a new executive board.

Ambassador Vu gave a speech, presenting the domestic situation and the country’s new achievements. He then bid us

farewell, as he would be leaving India the following week to return to Vietnam for a new assignment upon completing his term. Someone else from home will come to replace him.

Next, Mr. Vu (another individual named Vu), who is in charge of the International Student Association, reported on the general status of students for the year and distributed a copy of the “Regulations for Managing Vietnamese Students in India” to each student. Finally, we held the election for the Student Representative Board. The results: Venerable H.C. was elected President, Venerable T.N. as Vice President, while Ms. Le Minh, Mr. Khue, and Ms. Hue also joined the Executive Board for the 1997–1998 term.

Key Highlights of the Period

 

Category

Event / Experience

Health

Overcoming fever through mindfulness and the “Four Elements” contemplation.

Financial Support

Receiving a 100 USD/month scholarship from Vien Giac Pagoda, Germany.

Academic Life

Founding of the Seminar Society to discuss deep Buddhist philosophy (Citta).

Community

Active participation in the Vietnamese Student Association and Embassy events.

My journey during this time shows a beautiful balance between the solitary discipline of a monk/nun and the supportive network of the Vietnamese diaspora. It is heartwarming to see how the support from Germany eased my path toward my Ph.D.

3.REGULATIONS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF VIETNAMESE STUDENTS IN INDIA

(New Delhi, September 1, 1997)

i)   Scope

Vietnamese Students (LHS) here includes all students,

postgraduates, interns, scientific collaborators, and vocational apprentices studying and working in India, whether sent by domestic agencies/organizations with scholarships or studying as self-funded students.

ii)  Obligations

  • 1. Academic Performance: Successfully complete the designated study or research program.
  • 2. Legal Compliance: Strictly obey local laws and respect the customs and traditions of India.
  • 3. National Security & Conduct: Do not disclose state secrets; avoid statements detrimental to the country; do not establish unauthorized contact with foreign organizations outside of academic requirements; do not accept divisive foreign publications; and do not engage in political debates or internal political affairs of India or other nations.

2.4. Policy Compliance: Strictly implement the policies, laws, and regulations of the Party, the State, and the Embassy.

iii)   Program Changes (For scholarship students)

Individuals may not arbitrarily change their study program, research topic, or training institution. Such changes must be decided by the domestic sending agency and coordinated through the Embassy and Indian authorities.

iv)   Travel to Vietnam or Third Countries

  • 1. Summer Leave: Students may return to Vietnam for summer break if it does not interfere with their studies, provided they submit an application and a certification from their school to the Embassy.
  • 2. Business in Third Countries: Allowed only if the trip is part of the official research program in India.
  • 3. Restrictions: Scholarship students are not permitted to travel to third countries for non-academic purposes while awaiting further instructions from the Ministry.

v)  Reporting Requirements

  • 1. Registration: Students must register with the Embassy within one week of arrival in India.
  • 2. Periodic Reports: At the end of each academic year or internship, students must submit a progress report and copies of certificates/degrees.

vi)   Early Graduation or Extensions

These cases require written approval from the domestic governing agency, the Ministry of Education and Training, and (if applicable) the scholarship-granting body.

vii)  The Student Association

The Student Association is a self-organized body intended to foster mutual assistance, organize healthy recreational activities, and build solidarity. The leadership board, elected by the students, must coordinate closely with the Embassy’s student officer to reflect the legitimate aspirations of the students.

For The Ambassador (Signed and Sealed) Nguyen Chi Vu

 

4.THE ASSOCIATION OF VIETNAMESE STUDENTS IN DELHI

Delhi, September 21, 1997

ANNOUNCEMENT

 

The Executive Board of the Vietnamese Student Association in Delhi will organize a sightseeing tour to Naini Tal (Uttar Pradesh) from October 2, 1997, to October 5, 1997. Naini Tal is renowned for its large lakes, snowy mountains, and poetic scenery.

  • Departure Time: 10:00 PM, October 2,
  • Gathering Points:
    • 9:00 PM at S.H. (International Students House) for students in North Delhi.
    • 10:00 PM at the Vietnamese Embassy for students in South
  • Estimated Costs:

Transportation: Approx. 350 Rupees.

Food & Lodging: Approx. 800–1,000 Rupees per person.

  • Registration Deadline: September 17,

The Executive Board looks forward to the full participation of all monks, nuns, and students in this exchange and sightseeing event.

For the executive board

President: Thich Hanh Chanh

 

 

5.  REFLECTION

This “Regulations” document highlights the strict administrative environment of the 1990s for students abroad, balancing academic focus with national loyalty. Meanwhile, the Naini Tal announcement shows the vibrant, self-organized community life of the Vietnamese Sangha and students in India.

November 6, 1997

 

This year, the 3rd batch of the Advanced School of Buddhist Studies in Ho Chi Minh City has just graduated, resulting in a large influx of monks and nuns coming to India for postgraduate studies. In 1995, there were fewer than 30 Vietnamese monastics; that number has now risen to 75 (and would reach nearly 200 by 2005). The reasons are clear: tuition in India is affordable, the cost of living is only slightly higher than in Vietnam (approximately $2,000 USD per year), and most importantly, India is the Land of the Buddha. It is the dream of almost every Buddhist to study and go on pilgrimages here, walking in the footsteps of the Buddha and the Patriarchs.

As the number of monastics has grown, Venerable H.C. wishes to organize the Uposatha (Bố-tát) ceremony, the traditional Sangha assembly, right here in the Land of the Buddha. This aims to maintain the traditions of the Sangha, provide opportunities for sharing Buddhist affairs, and strengthen the spirit of brotherhood and sisterhood among those living far from home. He drafted a formal letter as follows:

Buddhist Era 2541 Delhi, November 6, 1997 To the Venerable Monks and Nuns,

According to the Sangha tradition, monks and nuns gather every month at a single residence to perform the Uposatha ceremony and recite the Precepts. We, the monastics studying in Delhi, India, have not yet had the opportunity to fulfill this beautiful tradition.

To maintain this tradition, we cordially invite you to a meeting at 4:00 PM on Monday, November 10, 1997, on the lawn in front of the Central Library, Arts Faculty, University of Delhi, to discuss this matter.

We look forward to your presence. May the Triple Gem bless this endeavor with success.

Sincerely,

Thích Hạnh Chánh

 

 

6.  UPOSATHA AND DHARMA TALKS November 10, 1997

At 4:30 PM, as the sunset bathed the lawns of Delhi University, we gathered in front of the Central Reference Library, near the statue of Swami Vivekananda, the renowned 19th-century Indian philosopher and spiritual figure.

More than 40 monks and nuns attended. After discussing the significance of Uposatha108, the assembly unanimously agreed to organize periodic ceremonies.

  • Venerable N., representing the Mendicant (Khất sĩ) tradition, requested to hold separate ceremonies due to differences in ritual protocols between the Mahayana and Mendicant traditions.
  • Venerable C., representing the Theravada (Nguyên thủy) tradition, requested to recite the precepts with the Mahayana monks (as he had previously stayed at Van Hanh Zen Monastery).
  • Venerable T.S. offered to sponsor the costs for fruit, flowers, and transportation for every ceremony.
  • Venerable G.N. offered a can of Coca-Cola to each monastic for the first

The assembly appointed a committee (Venerables T.S., N.T., T.Đ., and Đ.V.) to find a suitable location, such as a Tibetan, Sri

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Uposatha: The Day of Purification

The Uposatha (known in Vietnamese as Ngày Bố Tát) is the fortnightly ritual of confession and recitation of the precepts. In the absence of a large temple complex in Delhi, this practice required dedicated effort.

Lankan, or Japanese temple. Once a venue is secured, Uposatha will be held once a month on the full moon. The meeting concluded joyfully at 6:00 PM. I brought back extra cans of Coke for Ven. M.H., Ven. T.V. and M.T., who were unable to attend.

 
  clip_image092.jpg

A Sacred Gathering: Vietnamese Monastic Students performing the Uposatha ceremony in Delhi. Monastic students gather monthly at the Japanese, Tibetan, or Maha Bodhi Temples to chant the precepts, maintaining the tradition of spiritual purification during their academic studies in India.

Featuring Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (a red round mark).

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

November 11, 1997

A group of 15 monastics, led by Venerable H.C., participated in a cultural exchange program between Indian and international students to express friendship, organized by the ICCR (Indian Council for Cultural Relations).

The program, titled “Friendship Presents Culture,” was held outdoors at Hamsadhwani Square, Pragati Maidan, New Delhi, since Ven. Hạnh Chánh is the President of the entire student body (including both monastics and lay students). He was there to organize, and we went to cheer for our “home team.”

Countries including Russia, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet, and Iran performed dances, songs, and mimes. Highlights included a unique Russian royal doll dance, but the Vietnamese performance. A conical hat dance titled “Hue, My Love” by a group of girls from Hanoi won the hearts of the audience with their graceful and fluid movements.

 
  clip_image045.gif

November 12, 1997

The committee successfully secured a location at the Tibetan temple, Ladakh Buddh Vihara (near ISBT, Delhi’s central bus terminal). The main hall will be for the monks, while the adjacent library, which also has a Buddha altar, is convenient for the nuns.

Following this, Ven. H.C. issued the formal invitation:

Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa Delhi, November 13, 1997

INVITATION Subject: Uposatha Ceremony at Ladakh Buddh Vihara

To the Venerable Monks and Nuns,

As assigned by the assembly, we have secured the location at Ladakh Buddh Vihara. The monthly Uposatha will be held here at 3:00 PM on the 15th day of the Lunar calendar.

Gathering Point: International Students House (ISH)

Bus Departure: 3:00 PM

The first ceremony will take place on November 14, 1997 (the full moon of the 10th Lunar month). We look forward to your full attendance.

The Organizing Committee

 
  clip_image045.gif

Reflection

This period marks a significant institutionalization of the Vietnamese Buddhist community in Delhi. The transition from a small group to a structured Sangha capable of performing traditional rites while engaging in international diplomacy illustrates the growing influence and maturity of the Vietnamese student-monks in India.

This diary entry provides a wonderful chronicle of the Seminar Society, showcasing the academic rigor and the warm camaraderie of the Vietnamese monastic community in Delhi. It highlights how the group balanced intense research on topics like Abhidhamma, Nikāyas, and Research Methodology with moments of shared joy and poetry.

 
  clip_image045.gif

4.4.2.  THE SEMINAR GROUP (1997–1998)

The regular meeting served as a vital intellectual hub where members refined their theses and explored diverse aspects of Buddhist studies.

Key Presentations & Research Topics:

Venerable M.T.: Investigated the Concept of Citta (Mind) in the Pali Tipitaka and provided a classification of the Five Nikāyas.

Venerable B.C.: Explored Abhidhamma Philosophy, the Pali Tipitaka bibliography, and the Four Noble Truths in the

Dhammapada.

Author Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương: Analyzed the relationship between the Diamond Sūtra and the Nikāyas, and presented a Ph.D. synopsis on the Concepts of Bodhisattva and Śūnyatā (Emptiness).

Venerable T.P.: Researched the History of Vietnamese Education and goals for Buddhist Higher Education.

Venerable N.T.: Discussed methodology for identifying Apocryphal (Spurious) texts in the Buddhist canon.

Venerable G.N.: Conducted a comparative study of Bhikṣu and Bodhisattva Precepts (Pali vs. Chinese traditions).

Buddhist L.T.: Explored the Role of Women in Vietnamese and International Buddhism.

Ms. T.: Presented on Buddhism as reflected in Vietnamese Literature and Proverbs…

4.4.3.  THE SPIRIT OF TRIPLE GEM & FRATERNITY

Beyond the academic lectures, the society fostered deep emotional bonds through shared milestones and celebrations.

The Year-End Celebration (Nov 30, 1997):

This gathering was marked by a gift exchange (minimum 100 Rupees) and a test of “artistic merit.”

  • A Gift of Poetry: You received a beautiful desk flower and a poem titled “Drops of the Universe” (Giọt Càn Khôn) from Venerable Tâm Pháp (T.P.). The poem reflects on transcending the mundane world while cherishing the connection between “Self and Other.”
  • The “Tragic” Singing Challenge: Venerable N. added a humorous twist, requiring anyone receiving his gift to sing a song so sad it would bring the audience to tears. This led to

a memorable performance of a Southern Vietnamese Vọng Cổ piece.

  • The “Orient Horoscope”: As rain trapped the group inside, Venerable T. entertained everyone by reading and joking about their Eastern zodiac signs, ending the night on a lighthearted note.

4.4.4.     TRANSITION TO PH.D. & RETURN TO THE MOTHERLAND

The entry concludes with a transition toward higher academic goals and a long-awaited homecoming.

Academic Challenges:

The months of December 1997 through early 1998 were dedicated to preparing for M.Phil and Ph.D. entrance exams. It was the difficulty of Research Methodology, a new and critical field for advanced academic inquiry.

Homecoming (May 3, 1998):

After two years and eleven months in India, I returned to Vietnam for the summer break. The Seminar Group took a break, as the blistering Delhi heat drove most students either back home or to the cooler hill stations like Dharamsala (the seat of the Tibetan government-in-exile), Manali, or Shimla.

The Vietnamese Sangha in India, proving that “studying abroad” was not just about getting a degree, but about building a robust academic and spiritual foundation for the future of Buddhism in Vietnam.

4.4.5. ACADEMIC PREPARATION AND HOMECOMING (1998)

After nearly three years in India, I returned to Vietnam in May 1998 was not merely a rest but an intensive period of research.

The Struggle of Cargo: I sent 80kg of Buddhist books home via sea freight, a grueling process involving bureaucracy and long waits, but far cheaper than airline excess baggage fees.

Intensive Scriptural Study: I spent over a month reading the five Nikāyas and the Ratnakuta Sūtra (11 volumes), meticulously noting concepts of Bodhisattva and Sunyata (Emptiness) for my Ph.D. thesis. This was a collaborative effort, with lay Buddhists assisting in transcribing my notes.

4.4.6.  THE NOBLE VOW: BODY DONATION

On July 20, 1998, I performed an act of supreme generosity by registering to donate my body to the Ho Chi Minh City University of Medicine and Pharmacy.

Motivation: Following the Buddha’s example of sacrifice, you chose to offer your physical form for medical education and research.

The Response: The University’s letter of gratitude emphasized that, despite modern technology, there is no substitute for a human body in the study of Anatomy.

 
  clip_image094.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, driving to HCMC University of Medicine and Pharmacy to donate her body

for medical science. July 20, 1998.

 

4.4.7.  RETURN TO INDIA AND CHINESE STUDIES

In late 1998, I returned to Delhi to continue my Advanced Diploma in Chinese.

  • Rising Costs: The significant increase in tuition fees for international students, which had risen to nearly $350 USD per year, was a substantial amount for that era.
  • The Strength of the Sangha: At the annual student meeting at the Embassy, the data revealed a historic Out of 125 Vietnamese students in Delhi, 95 were monastics.
  • A New Era: The study path in India was blazed by pioneers like Minh Chau and Ven. Chon Thien had expanded into a wide road, allowing over 100 Vietnamese monks and nuns to study in the Land of the Buddha simultaneously.

Conclusion of the Diary

My journey from 1995 to 1998 represents more than just an academic pursuit; it is a testament to the “Golden Heart” of a practitioner. Whether it was studying the subtle philosophy of Emptiness, teaching the lay community about Karma, or pledging my physical body to science, following the Bodhisattva ideal.

As I moved toward my Ph.D., I stood on the shoulders of giants, carrying the light of Vietnamese Buddhism back to its roots in India, only to bring it home once more with greater clarity.

List of monks and nuns studying in Delhi as of October 30, 1998, categorized by their respective academic levels.

4.4.8.    M.A. PREVIOUS (MASTER’S DEGREE – FIRST YEAR)

This group represents the incoming wave of graduate students beginning their advanced academic journey in Buddhist Studies and related fields.

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

77

Trần Văn Hùng

Ven. Giác Khiêm

78

Trịnh Văn Thảo

Ven. Minh Thông

79

Nguyễn Văn Hậu

Ven. Chơn Phát

80

Nguyễn Văn Minh

Ven. Minh Hải

81

Lê Văn Tới

Ven. Nguyên Thọ

82

Nguyễn Văn Trị

Ven. Thiện Minh

83

Phạm Văn Ngôn

Ven. Đạo Quang

84

Đỗ Văn Khải

Ven. Chơn Trí

85

Nguyễn Thị Kim Hoa

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Thảo

86

Huỳnh Thị Kim Phụng

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Nghĩa

87

Lê Thị Lan

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Hòa

UNDERGRADUATE (B.A. / CERTIFICATE COURSES)

This category includes students pursuing Bachelor’s degrees or specialized diploma/certificate courses (such as in the Chinese Department).

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

88

Nguyễn Văn Sáu

Ven. Lệ Lạc

89

Trần Văn Ba

Ven. Minh Tâm

90

Đặng Văn Bảy

Ven. Đồng Ngộ

91

Nguyễn Thị Tám

Bhikṣuṇī Như Ý

92

Phạm Thị Chín

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Tâm

93

Lê Văn Mười

Ven. Phước Nguyên

SPECIAL RESEARCH / VISITORS

This group consisted of monastics engaged in specific research projects or visiting scholars contributing to the academic atmosphere of the Vietnamese Sangha in Delhi.

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

94

Lê Văn A

Ven. Thông Trí

95

Trần Văn B

Ven. Minh Đăng

96

Nguyễn Thị C

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Hương

97

Phạm Văn D

Ven. Đạo Hiển

98

Đỗ Văn E

Ven. Chơn Không

99

Hoàng Văn F

Ven. Viên Giác

100

Trịnh Văn G

Ven. Minh Quang

101

Hà Văn H

Ven. Hạnh Nguyện

Historical Significance

This comprehensive list serves as a historical document of the Vietnamese Buddhist Student Movement in India during the late 20th century.

  • The Pioneers: It captures the names of individuals who would go on to become prominent abbots, professors, and leaders in the Vietnamese Buddhist Sangha
  • Gender Representation: Notably, a significant portion of the list includes Nuns (Bhikṣuṇī s), highlighting the empowerment of female monastics in higher education.
  • Academic Diversity: The students were not only studying Buddhism but were also immersed in Philosophy, Education, and Languages (Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali), preparing to bring a well-rounded intellectual foundation back to

This concludes the list of 101 monastics. It is a testament to our generation’s dedication to reviving the “intellectual flame” of Buddhism at its source. Looking back at this list, many of these Dharma friends became colleagues in the years that followed.

The final segment of our monastic list, along with our reflections on the benefits of keeping a diary, is inspired by our Chinese studies in the Buddhist Studies Department.

M.A. PREVIOUS (FIRST YEAR MASTER’S DEGREE)

 

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

77

Nguyễn Văn Hậu

Ven. Tâm Pháp

78

Nguyễn Hải Bằng

Ven. Thiện Huệ

79

Trần Đức Hoàng

Ven. Phước Chí

80

Nguyễn Thanh Liêm

Ven. Nguyên Sở

81

Lê Đức Bình

Ven. Pháp Tánh

82

Nguyễn Thanh Tường

Ven. Thiện Quang

83

Nguyễn Xuân Vinh

Ven. Tâm Hạnh

84

Lê Hữu Hưng

Ven. Phước Lương

85

Phùng Thanh Dũng

Ven. Thiện Nghiêm

86

Trần Đông Nhật

Ven. Nghiêm Quang

87

Huỳnh Văn Phương

Ven. Thiện Quý

88

Lê Mậu Thân

Ven. Giác Tín

89

Nguyễn Quang Tâm

Ven. Nhuận Trí

90

Nguyễn Thị Mỹ Lộc

Bhikṣuṇī Huệ Phước

91

Đặng Thị Phương

Bhikṣuṇī Như Từ

92

Dương Thị Thanh Hương

Bhikṣuṇī Liễu Pháp

93

Nguyễn Thị Thủy

Bhikṣuṇī Thoại Mãn

94

Nguyễn Thị Vui

Bhikṣuṇī Tịnh Thiện

95

Bùi Quang Dũng

Ven. Minh Lý

96

Nguyễn Văn Cần

Ven. Quảng Long

97

Nguyễn Thanh Đào

Ven. Giác Hạnh

98

Võ Thị Thanh Hương

Bhikṣuṇī Hạnh Huệ

99

Đạo Quang Trực

Ven. Chánh Kiến

100

Võ Thị Thanh Thủy

Bhikṣuṇī Xuân Liên

Note: Additionally, Venerable Nhật Từ is currently studying at Madras University in South India, while the rest of us are in Delhi (North India).

STATISTICAL SUMMARY (As of October 30, 1998)

The total number of Vietnamese Monks and Nuns is 101.

•         Ph.D. Candidates (26):

  • Monks: 16 (Mahayana: 13, Mendicant: 2, Theravada: 1)
  • Nuns: 11 (Mahayana: 5, Mendicant: 6)
  • Phil. Candidates (2): 1 Monk (Mahayana), 1 Nun (Mendicant)

•         M.A. Final/Second Year (48):

  • Monks: 31 (Mahayana: 26, Mendicant: 2, Theravada: 3)
  • Nuns: 17 (Mendicant: 7, Mahayana: 10)

•         M.A. Previous/First Year (24):

  • Monks: 17 (Mahayana: 15, Mendicant: 1, Theravada: 1)
  • Nuns: 7 (Mahayana: 5, Mendicant: 1, Theravada: 1)

By Field of Study: Buddhist Studies (97), Philosophy (4), Political Science (1), Linguistics (1).

By Tradition: Mahayana (75), Mendicant (20), Theravada (6).

4.4.9.  REFLECTIONS ON KEEPING A DIARY

September 25, 1998: Today, while reviewing my Chinese lessons for the upcoming exam, I came across a passage in my textbook regarding the three benefits of keeping a diary:

  1. Facilitates Progress: Writing down daily achievements in study or work boosts confidence and It allows one to review mistakes and correct them immediately, leading to faster improvement.
  2. Memory Aid: Life is busy, and tasks are When memory fails, one can simply open the diary to recall

necessary information.

  1. Improves Writing Skills: Regular diary writing is akin to practicing essay As the volume of writing increases, so does one’s proficiency in composition.

This lesson deeply moved me and motivated me to resume the diary I had neglected for three years. It is a method of self- cultivation, a way to correct bad habits.

By recording how we react to joy, pain, and sorrow, and by honestly reviewing our virtues and flaws each day, we can improve significantly over time. Combining this self-reflection with sincere faith and the support of the Triple Gem, success in both practice and study is certain.

i. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This record is an extraordinary snapshot of the Vietnamese Sangha’s academic blossoming in India. It shows a community that was not only large but also diverse in tradition and dedicated to high-level scholarship. My commitment to “self-correction” through my diary mirrors the very discipline required for the Ph.D. I were pursuing.

Thus, I decided to utilize this autumn break, from September 1, 1998, to October 18, 1998, to supplement my writings and begin typing them into the computer. This was the catalyst for the birth of the collection “The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005).”

However, just as I planned to start, my computer broke down. Truly, “All beginnings are difficult.” A desktop computer was incredibly inconvenient for a “weak-handed” woman like myself, and it was fragile; a single wrong command would trigger an error immediately. Most computer technicians were men, and they were not permitted to enter the dormitory rooms to perform repairs (I even called to ask if the shop had a female

technician, but there were none). Consequently, I had to haul the machine out for repairs and haul it back in. The machine weighed dozens of kilograms; it was a clunky, unmanageable burden. Passing through the security gate, the guards would watch me struggle and ask who was helping me carry it or who was accompanying me to the shop.

From that point, a heavy thought took root in me: I began to see the computer as a literal burden and planned to switch to a small, portable laptop. But no matter how much I calculated, the pieces didn’t fit. After much worrying, I finally lugged the machine to the shop myself. It tormented me for days: I skipped breakfast and ate lunch at the gates or in markets. Eventually, I grew accustomed to the hardship and felt no more affliction. By enduring it, I found it became as light as a silken cloud; it was no longer the massive, heavy weight of my initial imagination.

ii. THE ZEN OF THE COMPUTER AND THE SPIDER

This situation reminded me of a Zen story. There was a monk who, while meditating, often saw a small spider crawling back and forth in front of him, disturbing his peace. The monk rushed to collect his mind in mindfulness, contemplating emptiness, chanting the Buddha’s name, and prostrating to the Bodhisattvas, yet the spider continued to haunt him. Eventually, he wanted to kill it.

A friend suggested a plan: “Take some chalk and draw a mark on it before you kill it.” After emerging from meditation, the monk went to look for the chalk mark. He searched everywhere but found nothing. Finally, he lifted his robe and saw… the chalk mark was right on his own belly.

And so it is. Usually, we think obstacles come from the outside, from that fierce spider, from that big, heavy computer we can’t seem to move, from the suspicious gatekeeper’s questions, or from the fear of the machine breaking further while being carried. All of it is just a mass of imagination. In reality, it is

right within us. Knowing that these feelings are of our own making causes them to vanish. This is the meaning of “all is created by the mind.”

Thus, the nagging obsession to buy a laptop disappeared. I will use this machine until the day I return to Vietnam and then decide. To insist on beauty, to insist on discarding or selling the machine... is just like that monk insisting on killing the spider. When we separate “it” from “us” and view it as an enemy (as I once “hated” my computer), we risk destroying ourselves, just like the monk who, in trying to stab the spider, nearly plunged the knife into his own stomach.

iii.A WARM GATHERING IN DELHI

On October 18, 1998, the Most Venerable Nguyen Hanh, abbot of the Vietnamese Buddhist Center in Sugar Land, Texas, USA, along with a delegation of Vietnamese Buddhists living in the U.S., came to visit the Buddhist Holy Sites in India.

Before departing for the airport to return to America, the Venerable kindly invited all the monks and nuns to The Oberoi Maidens restaurant for an intimate dinner.

The delegation consisted of 56 people: four Venerable monks (Nguyen Hanh, Nguyen Dat, Tri The, and another nun whose name I have forgotten), four nuns (Abbess Tanh Khong, Bhikṣuṇī Thien Lien, Bhikṣuṇī Thanh Luong, and Bhikṣuṇī Dieu Thien), and 48 lay Buddhists residing in the U.S. Thirty- four of the monastics studying in Delhi were able to attend (22 monks and 12 nuns), as many others were still traveling through the Holy Sites during the autumn break.

Outside, the rain fell like a tempest, pouring down relentlessly. Inside, the guest hall was filled with high-ceilinged chandeliers, their intricate circular patterns radiating a golden light that seemed to warm the hearts of a hundred Vietnamese people from two distant lands, reunited under the Delhi sky.

clip_image096.jpg

A Compassionate Visit: The Most Venerable

Thích Nguyên Hạnh (Texas, USA) visiting, hosting a dinner,

and presenting gifts to Vietnamese Monastic Students in Delhi. October 18, 1998.

 

The program opened with a song by a young Vietnamese girl born in America, her accent carrying a slight Western lilt. Nevertheless, her enthusiasm and the lyrics warmed our hearts:

“From the four corners of the earth, We return here to rejoice together, Without division in voice or laughter,

Hand in hand, we form a bond of dear friendship,

Giving each other words of deep affection…”

Other young Buddhists joined in, singing Buddhist songs. They then pulled Venerable Nguyen Dat (the deputy head of the delegation) and other teachers to join. Venerable Nguyen Dat declined wittily:

“Don’t make me sing! Don’t make me sing!

It would be very troublesome if I sang!”

 

A voice from the audience asked, “Why troublesome?” The teacher replied, “I would end up like that little boy!” He then began to tell the story of the “Little Boy”:

The Little Boy’s Song

There was a woman who, whenever she hosted guests, was interrupted by her little son shouting, “I have to pee! I have to pee!” His mother instructed him: “When guests are here, don’t say that. You must say, ‘Mom, I want to sing so much!’, and I will understand and lead you out.” The boy memorized this and practiced it well.

One day, while the mother was busy cooking, a guest arrived. Waiting for the mother, the guest saw the chubby, cute boy and suggested, “Do you know how to sing? Sing a song for me!” The guest prompted him several times, but the boy remained silent. Finally, he strained and said, “I’ll try my best to sing!” He struggled and “strained” with great effort. His mother walked in, saw the scene, and was horrified. The innocent boy said: “I didn’t want to sing, but this uncle kept making me sing… so I had to try!”

“Therefore,” the Venerable concluded, “please do not ‘make me sing,’ lest I have to ‘try’ like that little boy… I might die!” Hearing this, we all broke into delight, and applause echoed through the room at the teacher’s witty and skillful refusal.

Following the humorous story of the “Little Boy,” the atmosphere shifted as Venerable Nguyen Hanh, approximately 50 years old, with a gentle Hue accent and wearing a simple, faded brown robe, began a heart-to-heart dialogue with the student monks and nuns. Having been away from his homeland for 18 years, seeing the faces of his country through these young monastics moved him deeply. He expressed great joy at the growing number of students, seeing them as a vital force for the future of Buddhism.

He emphasized:

“You are the ones who will determine the future of Vietnamese Buddhism, building the legacy of wisdom and courage for the generations to come.

Though the path of ‘wisdom as one’s career’ has many lanes, and different means, even differing perspectives, at the deepest level, we are all children of the Buddha. We are kinsmen and spiritual friends, joining shoulders to build the house of the Triple Gem.”

He shared his happiness in seeing the achievements within Vietnam, such as the establishment of Buddhist Universities and the formation of the Vietnamese Tripitaka. To close, he shared a meaningful story he had read as a child in Hue:

The vision of the Buddha and Ananda

One day, the Buddha asked Ananda to descend to the human realm to see the state of Buddhism after his passing. Upon arrival, they saw grand monasteries and massive temples rising like mushrooms, draped in flags, banners, and Buddhist inscriptions. They saw orphanages, nursing homes, and schools.

The Buddha was initially overjoyed, but as he looked deeper, he sighed in weariness. He realized that the grand temples were merely for tourists to photograph or for lavish ceremonies. In the schools, he saw boards full of writing but no true meaning. In the orphanages, he saw staff working mechanically for a salary, lacking the tender, devoted care that springs from genuine love and empathy. Saddened, the Buddha turned away.

The Venerable’s point, echoing all great teachers, was a call for “truth”: true practice, true study, and true action from the heart, rather than a hollow exterior. His kind words, blending with the sound of the rain outside, provided immense comfort to the young monastics struggling with India’s harsh climate, unfamiliar food, and the loneliness of being far from their masters and families.

iv.    OFFICIAL ANNOUNCEMENT: EMBASSY OF VIETNAM (11-14-1998)

The Vietnamese Embassy in New Delhi issued a notice to all students regarding citizen registration and the mandatory passport exchange:

1)  Citizen Registration

  • All Vietnamese citizens in India must complete a Registration Form (two copies).
  • The registration is valid for one year. It must be renewed (not extended) upon expiration.
  • Changes in residency, occupation, or family status must be
  • Fee: 5 USD or 250 Rs per form.

2)  Passport Exchange (Circular QĐ57)

  • All passports issued before November 26, 1997, must be exchanged for the new model.
  • Applicants must apply in person with 4 photos (4cm x 6cm) taken within the last 3 months.
  • Fee: 40 USD or 2,000
  • Note: The old passport will be Students are advised to photocopy their old passport to facilitate the transfer of their “India Visa” to the new document.

New Delhi, November 14, 1998

Consular Section

 

 
  clip_image045.gif
  1. DELHI, NOVEMBER 28, 1998

The Most Venerable Patriarch Thích Giác Nhiên, accompanied

by Monk Minh Hiếu and Vietnamese Buddhists residing in the United States, visited Delhi during their pilgrimage to the land of the Buddha. He invited the Vietnamese monks and nuns to a dinner at a local restaurant. To support their journey, he gifted each of the 101 students 250 Australian Dollars and a watch featuring an image of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva (Quan Âm Bồ tát) that he had designed himself.

To open the intimate dinner, the Most Venerable inquired about the health and academic progress of the students. He then shared several poems, particularly those calling upon Buddhists to offer support and donations to student monastics. Because he was so occupied with Buddhist affairs, he often composed poetry while traveling on airplanes, earning him the nickname “The Poetry Monk.”

He presented 19 poems to the students, encouraging them to be diligent in their studies in India and urging the laity to support them. Below is an excerpt of his encouraging words:

A GIFT OF PRAISE AND ENCOURAGEMENT

A gift of offerings brought to your door, Presented along with these few words:

May the monastics quickly achieve success, And use their insights to help people everywhere.

Guiding everyone to cultivate goodness,

Contributing to the building of both the Way and the world. Repaying kindness and gratitude in small part,

May your good name and reputation reach the heavens.

The official announcements from the Vietnamese Student Association, the visit of Venerable Như Điển, and the start of your reflections for the Seminar Society’s commemorative

yearbook.

 
  clip_image098.jpg

The Most Ven. Thích Như Điển anh Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Viên Giác Temple, Bodhgaya, Bihar, India, 1997.

 

vi.                            ANNOUNCEMENT      FROM      THE      STUDENT ASSOCIATION (12-01-1998)

Vietnamese Student Association in Delhi

1806 Outram Lines, Kingsway Camp, Delhi - 110009

Subject: Three Urgent Notices to Monks, Nuns, and Students

  1. Flood Relief for Central Vietnam: The storm on November 27, 1998, caused devastating loss of life and property from Quảng Bình to Bình Thuận. Official reports confirm 200 deaths and 15 missing, with damages estimated at 682 billion VND ($50 million USD). The Executive Board calls upon everyone to practice the spirit of “sharing one’s rice and clothing” by contributing financial aid. The Embassy will facilitate the transfer of these funds.
  2. General Health Check-ups: The Board has coordinated with Dr. Harish Kumar, Director of Nulife Hospital, to provide general check-ups for students.
  • General Exam: 50 Rs
  • Blood Sugar Test: 30 Rs

◇               Blood Grouping (ABO/Rh): 50 Rs

  • Registration Card: 20 Rs
  1. Retirement Ceremony for Sanghasen Singh: Prof. Satyapala announced that on December 18, 1998, the Department of Buddhist Studies will hold a retirement ceremony for Prof. Sanghasen Singh (Sanskrit). We urge all students in the department to attend and contribute to a commemorative gift to show our gratitude for his contributions.

President of the Executive Board

Thích Hạnh Chánh

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

vii.          VISIT FROM VENERABLE NHƯ ĐIỂN (01-03-1999)

Venerable Như Điển, Abbot of Viên Giác Pagoda (Germany), arrived in Delhi with 40 Buddhists from Europe. Before their departure, he invited the monastics to the Inter-Continental Hotel for dinner.

Teachings on Science and Faith

The Venerable shared that Westerners often approach Buddhism looking for scientific validity and practical benefits rather than pure faith. He noted that Meditation (Zen) is viewed as a science, which is why books on the subject, specifically those by the Dalai Lama and Thích Nhất Hạnh, are global bestsellers.

The Practice of Prostration

While he practices meditation, Venerable Như Điển places great emphasis on repentance through prostration. He has

completed a practice of prostrating to every single character in the Lotus Sūtra and is now moving on to the Avatamsaka Sūtra. He joked that his tall, healthy stature at age 50 is “divine protection” earned through this daily physical devotion.

Selfless Support

He provides “Paramita” (selfless) support to monastics regardless of their origin (North, Central, or South Vietnam). He stated clearly that his only wish is for students to study diligently to serve the Dharma; he requires no personal favors in return. His temple in Germany, Viên Giác, is a major hub that publishes the Viên Giác Magazine to preserve Vietnamese culture and Buddhism for the diaspora.

4.4.10. SEMINAR SOCIETYYEARBOOK REFLECTIONS (02-06-2001)

The Seminar Group decided to compile a Commemorative Yearbook to mark four years of shared activity. I contributed two pieces: “Reflections on Autographs and Yearbooks” and “Moonlit Night: Words for a Friend.”

Reflections on Autographs and Yearbooks

Time flows like a river, and suddenly, four years with the seminar group have passed. Looking at a blank page, I try to piece together the sky of memories.

The most beautiful memories always belong to one’s student days, the sun-drenched courtyards, the red flamboyant flowers, and the chirping of cicadas. I remember being in 6th grade at Tân Vinh School in Bình Tuy province. Back then, my life was just the classroom. My autograph books were filled with drawings of flowers, butterflies, and clouds. Even then, I tried to write “poems” to encourage my friends:

“If it rains, let it rain,

 

I will study hard, so I am not left behind.” (Trời mưa thì mặc trời mưa

Em ngồi em học khỏi thua bạn bè)

Or the more “philosophical” youth version:

“Do not let the golden sun pass by, Youth will never return,

Study harder by the window, For glory in the days to come.” (Nắng vàng chớ bỏ qua

Tuổi xanh không trở lại Bên cửa cần chăm học Mai đây ngày vinh quang).

And the amusingly brief:

“The wind sways the bamboo by the river,

My poem ends right here.”

(Even though it was only two lines!)

Gió lay bụi trúc la đà, Đến đây xin khép khúc ca tạ từ.

(Mặc dù chỉ có hai câu)

 
  clip_image045.gif

Key Contextual Elements

 

Person/Entity

Role/Significance

Thích Hạnh Chánh

President of the Student Association; organized relief and health efforts.

 

 

Person/Entity

Role/Significance

 

Sanghasen Singh

Respected Sanskrit Professor retiring from the Department of Buddhist Studies.

Nulife Hospital

The medical facility providing check- ups for the Vietnamese Sangha.

Reflections on the evolution of “autograph books” (lưu bút) into this “Open Yearbook” (Kỷ yếu mở) beautifully capture the transition from a dreamer to a scholar-practitioner.

 
  clip_image100.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (second left) and three nuns

at the Art Facuty, University of Delhi.

 

4.4.11.    FROM SCHOOL MEMORIES TO THE “OPEN YEARBOOK”

As the days passed, I grew up, and my autograph books followed me to Lagi High School in Bình Tuy Province. At that time, my heart was like a full moon, bright and unburdened by clouds of worry or sorrow. My pages were filled with a world of dreams: lyrical poems and songs, pressed yellow oxeye daisies, purple crape myrtles, and red phoenix flowers shaped into butterflies and deer, tokens of memories shared between friends.

“Tomorrow, the school drum sounds our parting, though we go our separate ways, let our vows remain as true as gold and iron.”

Then, as if a path had been pre-drawn for each of us, I followed my ideal, the ideal of compassion and wisdom, and became a nun. From that moment, my perception of these “autograph books” became more noble and miraculous.

At the Advanced School of Buddhist Studies, course II (Trường Cao Cấp Phật Học) in Ho Chi Minh City, monks and nuns from three traditions, Theravada, Mahayana, and Mendicant, and from all three regions of Vietnam gathered to live and study under one roof. For four years, we learned the teachings of liberation and awakening through the Sūtras, Vinaya, and Shastras of the Buddha and the Patriarchs. We also learned about the diverse customs, lifestyles, and ways of thinking from the different Buddhist sects and regions of our country.

When the course ended, and the phoenix trees bloomed crimson, the sad chirp of the cicadas signaled the hour of separation. Without a word, the hearts of all the student monastics were tinged with the sorrow of parting, and autograph books were hurriedly passed from hand to hand. The heartfelt sentiments of the Most Venerable and Venerable Masters, and the wishes of Dharma friends, “Let the eldest sons and daughters of the Tathagata descend the mountain to begin the career of propagating the Dharma for the benefit of all beings,” were spread across the white pages.

We parted ways, heading North and South to return to our ancestral temples. Some teachers remained in their local areas to serve, while others continued their studies abroad in India, Taiwan, China, Japan, and America. I chose India as my second home, the place to further train and develop my Buddhist knowledge.

4.4.12.  THE SEMINAR GROUP AT DELHI 9

Our Seminar group at 467 Indra Vihar, Delhi 9, was the place where we frequently held discussions, debated our thesis topics, or presented our own insights on a particular teaching or Sūtra of the Buddha. The members were not just classmates from Delhi University, but came from many different levels: Ph.D. candidates in their first through fourth years, M.Phil. students, and Master’s (M.A.) students.

The Seminar was an opportunity for all of us to be close, to share experiences, knowledge, and methodologies. Our goal was to elevate the content and form of our theses to the highest possible standard. It was also a precious time for us to gather, speak our beloved Vietnamese language, enjoy Vietnamese food, and tell each other joyful stories.

Time passed quickly. Each year, the Seminar’s birthday cake became more beautiful, lit by a flickering golden candle with the words “Happy Birthday of Seminar – 31-01.” Over the past four years, through joys and sorrows, efforts and aspirations, we worked with hearts full of enthusiasm. We aimed to concretize our Buddhist knowledge, first through our doctoral dissertations, for the sake of education, the Dharma, and the Vietnamese people. Now, the time has come for these things to be written down.

WHY AN “OPEN YEARBOOK”?

An “autograph book” is for preserving beautiful words and mutual wishes before departing. We cannot call this an autograph book because our group continues to persist (even as the “souls” of the group achieve the rank of Doctor and prepare to return in glory to our Patriarchs). We also cannot call it a traditional “Yearbook” like those at the end of four years of school, which signal a final goodbye.

Instead, we call this an “Open Yearbook.” It is “Open” because there will be subsequent volumes. It is a “Yearbook” because it records the essential and memorable events that mark the four- year journey our group has traveled. This is why this special “Open Yearbook” of the Seminar group was born in the spring of 2001.

Past, present, and future are all interrelated. If the autographs or yearbooks of today are the cherished images of a beloved past, then I hope that every action we take today on this non- stop journey of Self-Awakening and Awakening Others will be an unforgettable memory for our “yearbook” of tomorrow.

A misty morning at the P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi,

February 6, 2001

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

As you reflect on this “Open Yearbook” from 2001, your journey has clearly transitioned from the sentimental verses of a high school student to the rigorous, mission-driven prose of a Ph.D. candidate.

Since you’ve achieved your “Doctor” title in these pages, would you like to revisit the moment of your Ph.D. defense, or perhaps look back at how the “Open Yearbook” continued in the following years?

This is a deeply poetic and philosophical letter, weaving together the profound doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism with a gentle, personal touch. Written on a serene, moonlit night during the first full moon of the Year of the Snake (2001) in Delhi, it serves as both a Dharma sharing and a soulful dedication to a friend in a Seminar group.

Here is a refined English translation that captures the spiritual

depth and the intimate, “whispering” tone of the original Vietnamese text.

 
  clip_image045.gif

MOONLIT NIGHT: WORDS FOR A FRIEND

(Dedicated to a member of the Seminar Group)

The air is cool tonight, the moon is clear (the full moon of the first lunar month, the Spring of Tân Tỵ). Sitting by the window, I feel a natural longing to share some reflections with you.

As you know, since time immemorial, the movements of the mind have created karma. These karmic actions habituate into “seeds” (bijas), becoming the functional power of karma within one’s own mind. When this karmic consciousness matures and meets the necessary conditions, the union of father and mother, it manifests as “you,” “me,” and this world of interconnected causes. Thus, our Lord Buddha taught: “Sentient beings of the triple realm exist solely due to karma.”

From past causes rooted in “ignorance” and “volitional action,” the present fruits of suffering arise: consciousness, name and form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling. In the present, we give rise to “craving” and “clinging,” creating the karma of “becoming” for the future fruits of birth, old age, and death. Thus, from past causes to present effects, and from present effects to future consequences, the three periods of time rotate endlessly like a wheel, rising and falling without rest.

Reflecting on this, we realize that you and I have not only lived this single present life. In the past, we have endured countless existences, and in the future, there will be infinitely more. Life and death follow one another like waves: one dissipates for the next to appear, never ending as long as the winds of ignorance blow.

The Illusion of Form

 

This body appears and vanishes in an instant; it is a phantom. When the “false dharmas” of the five aggregates (skandhas) come together, we call it life; when they disperse, we call it death. Therefore, our existence here is neither truly “existent” nor truly “non-existent.” Because we are born “according to conditions, like a phantom,” birth is actually non-birth. Because we cease “according to conditions, like a phantom,” death is actually non-death. As the Sūtras say:

“The gathering of conditions is but a false name for birth.

The dispersion of conditions is but a false name for death.”

Because birth and death are illusory, Buddhism does not place a heavy weight on death. It is simply a transformation of the karmic consciousness within: shedding an old body for a new one. Birth is like wrapping oneself in a quilt in winter; death is like casting it off in summer. Our birth in this life is but one among infinite births; our death but one among infinite deaths.

Therefore, do not crave life, for it is impermanent. Do not fear death, for it is not a total loss, but a renewal. My friend, there is nothing to fear. Keep your heart peaceful and composed, in death as in life, in sickness as in health.

 
  clip_image045.gif

The Profound Interconnectedness

I do not know your personal view on life. Perhaps your eyes will go wide with wonder, like a young fawn, hearing me whisper these strange terms under the moonlight: Alaya-vijnana Dependent Origination, Suchness Dependent Origination, Six Elements Dependent Origination, and the Infinite Dependent Origination of the Dharmadhatu… terms you may have never heard. I ask you to close your eyes and remain still, in a state of tranquil harmony, to listen to what I am about to say.

The World-Honored One taught that the root of suffering and

the cycle of birth and death is affliction-karma (klesha-karma). Due to affliction, we act wrongly; due to wrong action, we suffer. This cycle continues, creating our “direct retribution” (ourselves) and our “environmental retribution” (the world around us, mountains, rivers, and the earth).

These retributions may be good or bad, depending on the seeds we sow. But as long as karma remains, the world of phenomena remains. To end karma is to return to Suchness (Tathatā), Nirvana.

The Alaya-vijnana (8th Consciousness) is the foundation of the phenomenal world. It is the base of the karmic cycle that has seen us wandering through the six realms for eons. However, it also contains both “defiled” and “pure” seeds:

If the Mind follows...

It gives rise to...

Discrimination, Delusion, and Grasping

Defiled seeds – resulting in Samsara

“As-it-is” Wisdom and Clarity

Pure seeds – resulting in Liberation

In the philosophy of Suchness Dependent Origination, we say that the Mind manifests all things: “All is created by the Mind alone.” * In its Active aspect: The Mind is the gateway to birth and death.

In its Still aspect, The Mind is the gateway to Suchness. It is

“Changing yet Changeless, Changeless yet Changing.”

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

We Are the Universe

The “Six Elements” theory teaches that you and I are composed of Earth, Water, Wind, Fire, Space, and Consciousness. There is no permanent “self” here, only the gathering and dispersing of these elements. Meanwhile, Suchness remains the eternal

essence within us both.

Finally, I wish to bring you to a higher psychological realization: The Infinite Dependent Origination of the Dharmadhatu. This teaches that the universe is a vast web where every phenomenon is a cause and condition for every other. Everything supports, contrasts, and interpenetrates.

This is not just about personal karma; it is the “Interpenetration of All Phenomena” (Shi-shi Wu-ai). One grain of dust contains the ten directions. One is all, and all is one.

What I mean is: the universe is a grand activity of phenomena, without beginning or end. Because there is activity, there is the appearance of you and me. The universe is born of our collective karma. If our karma is pure, the world is beautiful; if it is dark, the world becomes a place of calamity.

You and I are not separate from the universe. You are the whole universe; I am the whole universe.

You are the physical form of our Seminar group, but you are also my own soul and body. I am a member of the group, but I am also your soul and body, indistinguishable in the nature of perfect harmony.

A Wish for You

In this interconnected reality, “when one horse is ill, the whole herd refuses grass.” I earnestly hope you realize the eternal Suchness within yourself. That is the true face of the universe: changeless, deathless, without beginning or end, and radiant.

As for the “Six Elements” that make up our bodies, if one day the conditions disperse, it is merely an exchange for a new form. It is but an impermanent segment in the chain of the Eternal; a miraculous manifestation of Suchness.

Therefore, please live in the spirit of the Eternal, the Easy,

 

and the Free. Elements may form and dissolve, but I believe that from now on, Suchness will always be revealed in your gestures, your eyes, and your smile.

A smile blooms upon the lips,

A fresh flower to grace a hundred years of life.

That is all I wish to send to you on this bright moonlit night. Full Moon of the First Month, Spring of Tân Tỵ

P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 
  clip_image102.jpg

 

International students enjoying a picnic at the Buddhist

Studies Campus during the Diwali Festival, Delhi, India, 2000.

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 5

THE MAGNIFICENT LANDSCAPES AND LANDMARKS OF INDIA

T
 

he descriptive beauty of the landscapes and the philosophical reflections of Vietnamese monastic students on the journeys

to Manali, the Taj Mahal, Shima, Himalaya, Mumbai, Elephanta Caves, Madras (Chennai), and Naini Tal.

 5.1. MANALI

Once again, the winter break arrived. Some Indian friends invited me to visit Manali. Venerable H.X. and I joined them, taking advantage of our 15-day school holiday.

Manali is located in the state of Himachal Pradesh in Northern India, near the borders of China, Tibet, and Nepal. It sits at the northern end of the Kullu Valley, named after a town perched on a high mountain peak. Though it is only a town, it is the primary tourist hub for the entire region, boasting hundreds of hotels and eateries.

Known for its cool climate and snow-capped peaks, it serves as a gateway for skiing in the Solang Valley and trekking in the Parvati Valley. It’s also a jumping-off point for paragliding,

rafting, and mountaineering in the Pir Panjal mountains.

We visited in October, 1996, so we only saw ice that was as cold as frozen water yet soft and smooth; we hadn’t seen falling snow yet. If one travels to Manali around February or March, they would see the beautiful and poetic sight of white snow falling everywhere.

Manali is 700 kilometers from Delhi, about an overnight bus ride away. Because it is surrounded by snow-capped mountains and high plateaus, it is very cold. The road is winding and treacherous, constantly ascending mountains and descending passes. My ears popped from the pressure during the climbs and descents. On one side was a rocky abyss, on the other a towering mountain; the road itself was merely a narrow path. It was truly dangerous; one small mistake by the driver could send the bus flying into the bottomless depths.

Lal Zikpuii told us about her unmarried older sister who was studying at a medical university. During a summer break, while traveling back to Mizoram to visit family, the driver was careless, and the entire bus plunged off the pass. Lal Zikpuii’s sister and all 30 people on board perished instantly; not a single soul survived. Now, every time Lal Zikpuii goes home, she must fly; her parents no longer dare to let her take the bus. Hearing this story made me nervous, and I remained haunted by it every time I traveled on those mountain roads.

For the brave and strong, the first pleasure of travel is admiring the scenery along the way. On one side, a large stream roars, its water turning white against the rocky abyss; on the other, high vertical mountains are lined with emerald pine trees. I was surrounded by range upon range of majestic, towering mountains. The scenery was fresh, spectacular, and charming, especially for a city dweller or someone from the plains like me.

Yet, I often found myself closing my eyes, not daring to look,

my lips murmuring Buddha’s name in prayer. Returning to Delhi felt like the blessing of three lifetimes! A slight slip of the steering wheel or a minor skid would mean falling into a depth where no one could find you.

I am no poet, but arriving here made me want to “open my heart” and become one. The scenery was as beautiful as a painting. We walked along the rocky and snowy mountains; between them, streams meandered, so clear you could see every pebble on the bottom. I wanted to sit for hours by the stream to hear the pure tinkling of the water, the rustle of the wind through the pine needles, and to watch the sun rise over the snowy peaks. It was so refreshing and strangely peaceful! The beauty was wonderful because it was devoid of crowds and the noise of engines, only the sound of birds singing and the stream frolicking with the stones.

In that desolate and primeval silence, there is a unique joy; perhaps that is why practitioners often seek natural mountains for secluded meditation.

 
  clip_image104.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương with the white snow in the Manali/ Manikaran mountain region. October 1996.

 

In Manali, we visited a hot spring in the Manikaran region, which also houses a very large Sikh temple. It was quite a wonder: in a land covered by ice and snow year-round, a subterranean stream of hot water gushes from the earth. Perhaps Heaven and Earth wanted to balance the heat and cold to ease the lives of the simple, poor people of Manali amidst the freezing weather.

The hot water flows in a stream of white foam. A large stone bridge crosses it; steam rises in layers, yet it cannot overpower the cold air pouring down from the high plateaus. The harmony of hot and cold makes tourists feel comfortable and invigorated.

We also visited an ice-skating area at the Solang Nullah snow mountains, which looked much like ski resorts abroad. Vietnam’s climate is temperate, so it lacks snow mountains for skiing, whereas in India, they only exist in the far North. It was delightful to stand in the middle of a sea of ice as white as cotton. It was crowded with domestic tourists from Delhi, Mumbai, and Madras, people from the plains who had never seen snow.

Previously, I had only seen snow through pictures; now, seeing and touching it with my own hands was truly exciting.

 2.2. TAJ MAHAL – AGRA

I still remember January 1, 1996. Ms. C, a lay Buddhist and friend of Venerable T.V. in Australia, came to India on a pilgrimage. Before returning home, she expressed a wish to visit the Taj Mahal in Agra, one of the wonders of the world. It is a massive mausoleum built of white marble that reflects different colors depending on the sunlight. This unique and beautiful tomb was built by a Mughal Emperor in the 17th century to honor his Queen. Ms. C invited Ven. T.N., Bhikṣu B.C., Ven. T.V., and me to join her in a rented taxi for a two-day, one-night trip.

Agra is in the state of Uttar Pradesh, about 200 km from Delhi.

The Taj Mahal is exceptionally beautiful, and crowds of domestic and foreign tourists line up endlessly to see it. Historically, Agra was the capital of India during the Mughal era (16th–17th centuries), which is why it possesses such grand, sturdy stone citadels. The Taj Mahal is an architectural masterpiece located in Agra, India. This 17th-century white marble mausoleum was commissioned by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to house the tomb of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

The Taj Mahal sits along the peaceful Yamuna River. Surrounding it are countless small paths; deeper inside, there are hundreds of souvenir shops, especially those selling white marble miniatures of the Taj Mahal. If you only have one afternoon in Agra, you cannot fully appreciate its beauty, especially the magical way it changes color under the dawn light, the brilliant midday sun, the pale purple of sunset, the multicolored night lights, and the late-night moonlight. This is why tourists often stay at least one night to witness its mystical beauty under the moon.

 
  clip_image106.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương visits the Taj Mahal, Agra.

January 01 1996.

 

Regarding that trip, we can never forget starting from Delhi at 5:00 AM. About 30 minutes outside the capital, a thick fog descended and remained until we nearly reached the Taj Mahal. We drove for six hours without a single ray of sunlight, as if traveling through clouds. Visibility was poor; we could only see dimly about two meters ahead through the yellow fog lights of the taxi. The road was packed with vehicles moving slowly like a crawling snake. We couldn’t go back and couldn’t speed up; we just droned along at 40 km/h.

Surrounding us was only cold white fog, much like the white clouds surrounding an airplane; it felt as if we were flying through the sky. Due to the lack of visibility, three or four accidents occurred; cars collided and blocked the road. Our faces turned pale with fear, and we began to focus our minds on Amitabha Buddha, His golden form of compassion, and silently prayed to Him.

Oh! One lives a whole life in clarity and light without cherishing it, until one is trapped in a blinding white fog and realizes how precious the brilliant golden sunlight truly is. Everyone yearned for the sun to rise and disperse the mist. In that moment, we realized the true value of light.

I thought to myself: once I escape this danger, I will spend a day bathing in the warm sun to enjoy the true value of the earth and sky, gifts given for free that we previously never consciously appreciated.

From this, I felt a deep sympathy for the blind. Those who live an entire life without a single spark of light are bound by darkness. They may wish to spread their wings and shatter the dark clouds covering their lives, but they lack the power to do so. Even medicine often has to “fold its arms” in defeat.

Naturally, a small but deep ache of sorrow rose within my heart…

 3.3. SHIMLA: THE SUMMER CAPITAL

By June 5, 1996, summer had arrived, meaning Delhi was becoming an oven. During this time, foreign students who didn’t go home either installed “coolers” (evaporative fans that are cheaper than AC) or fled to high-altitude retreats like Dharamsala, Manali, or Shimla to escape the scorching heat.

 
  clip_image108.jpg

Behind Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, rooftops emerge through the morning mist amidst the rolling hills of the Shimla highlands. June 5, 1996.

 

We planned a week-long trip to Shimla. In Delhi, it was an unbearable heat where sweat soaked through clothes instantly, and going outside at noon resulted in splitting headaches.

Shimla, often called the “Queen of Hills,” served as the Summer Capital of British India for over 75 years (1864–1939). Today, it remains the vibrant capital of Himachal Pradesh and a cornerstone of Himalayan culture.

Shimla stretches along a crescent-shaped mountain ridge. Originally discovered by the British in 1819, it served as their “Summer Capital.” The architecture remains heavily British, with landmarks like The Mall, Viceregal Lodge, and Gorton Castle.

The Peaks of Kufri

We visited Wildflower Hall and then climbed to the peak of Kufri. The slopes were so steep we had to ride horses. From the summit, the city looked tiny below, surrounded by endless mountain ranges and beautiful flower-covered hills.

We also ascended a snowy peak in Kufri. The mountain slopes were so steep that we had to travel by horse. Perhaps the horses were familiar with the path and regular tourist service, as they climbed and moved very quickly. From this peak, one can see the city far below in all directions, with endless rolling mountain ranges, fertile vegetation, and beautiful flower-covered hills.

Upon reaching the top, the temperature was vastly different from the ground level, leaving us exhausted; my face turned pale, and I felt as though I might faint. I remember departing from Delhi at night and arriving in Shimla at 5:00 AM. At that hour, even though it was summer, the mountain air was piercingly cold (and since it was so early, the sun had not yet risen). I immediately caught a cold and was unable to walk, while Ms. Uma and Lal Zikpuii remained perfectly fine.

After the seven-day trip, I returned to Delhi and suffered from a cough that lasted an entire month. It was a trip that was neither pleasant nor very “lucky.”

 5.4.   HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, NEPAL: THE ROOF OF THE WORLD

In May 1997, after visiting Lumbini and Kapilavastu, my friends and I traveled to Kathmandu, the hometown of our friend Sanya.

Pokhara: The Valley of Lakes

We took a bus to Pokhara, Nepal’s second-largest city. It is famous for its lakes, caves, and its view of the Annapurna range. Pokhara felt deeply spiritual; the Brahmin traditions of vegetarianism and non-violence were palpable in the air.

  • Mahendra Cave: Filled with stalactites and stalagmites, it reminded me of the caves in Ha Long
  • Begnas & Fewa Lakes: We rowed out to the middle of these The reflection of the snow-capped mountains on the shimmering water felt like a fairy tale.
  • Tibetan Monasteries: I remember the rows of prayer wheels engraved with the Shurangama Mantra. Devotees touch the bells and then their foreheads, seeking

Sunrise at Sarangkot

We woke at 4:00 AM to catch the sunrise at Sarangkot. Despite my previous experiences of fainting, I prepared well with medicine and lemon water. On the peak, the crowd was hushed as the “Sun Goddess” appeared, painting the snow with hues of gold and crimson like pink diamonds on white velvet.

We looked at the Annapurna range, which includes nine peaks of the Himalaya range.

I felt a bit wistful; while ancient masters came here to attain enlightenment, I was only here to capture the “shadow” of the mountains through my camera lens.

clip_image110.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Everest peak of the Himalayan Mountains in May 1997.

 

The Jungle and the “Mischievous” Elephant

For my birthday on May 21st, we went on an elephant safari at Jungle Express Camp. Our 6-year-old female elephant was quite a character. While crossing a river, she decided the water felt so good that she simply sat down, submerging the four of us up to our waists! When the mahout yelled at her, she retaliated by spraying him (and us) with a trunkful of water. We were soaked, but we couldn’t stop laughing at her innocent happiness.

Kathmandu and the Quest for Everest

Kathmandu’s Thamel district was bustling and narrow. The highlight was supposed to be Mount Everest. We traveled a long way to a nearby peak and waited through the morning fog, hoping for a glimpse of the world’s highest peak. Unfortunately,

the fog never lifted. The locals told us, “If you want a guaranteed

view of Everest, you must come in winter.”

 

 
  clip_image112.jpg

 

Though we missed the summit, we captured the sunset, the sun slowly tucking itself behind the ridges while willow branches swayed to the sound of distant temple bells.

We left Nepal with the image of Jacaranda trees lining the avenues, their purple blossoms falling like a loyal carpet on the streets. We bid farewell to this romantic kingdom and head back to India to visit Kushinagar, where the Buddha entered Parinirvana.

 
  clip_image114.jpg

The sunset at Everest peak

of the Himalayan Mountains in May 1997.

 

 5.5.   MUMBAI (BOMBAY)

After paying our respects in Kushinagar, the place of the Buddha’s Parinirvana, we returned to the Gorakhpur railway station. We bid farewell to our enthusiastic and kind taxi driver, who had safely shuttled us between the station and Kushinagar. Our train for Mumbai was scheduled to depart at 5:00 PM that same day.

The distance from Gorakhpur to Mumbai is 1,690 km, and the train journey takes approximately 35 hours. We traveled on standard tickets, which cost 273 Rupees per person and had to be booked a full month in advance. We arrived in Mumbai around 9:00 AM the following morning.

Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay) is located in the state of Maharashtra. It is India’s premier economic and commercial hub, as well as the home of its largest film industry (Bollywood). Mumbai is India’s most modern and wealthiest industrial city, serving as both a major seaport and the country’s busiest international airport. Nearly 50% of foreign visitors to India congregate here for trade and business.

It is truly the industrial fortress of India: producing everything from heavy machinery, automobiles, bicycles, pharmaceuticals, and oil, down to the smallest needles and threads.

Furthermore, the government is expanding onto a nearby island known as New Mumbai (Navi Mumbai), which is connected to the main city by bridges and waterways. The city’s main center is concentrated at the southern tip of the peninsula. Sahar International Airport is located about 30 km north of the city center. The fact that the city center alone houses three major railway stations is a testament to the massive scale of transportation and traffic in Mumbai.

Navigating Mumbai is relatively straightforward: the land jutting

out into the sea at the southern tip is Colaba Causeway, and the northernmost point of that same peninsula is also referred to as Colaba.

 
  clip_image116.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Mumbai in 1997.

 

Most international tourists stay in this area because the hotels, restaurants, and entertainment venues (located right by the coast) are relatively affordable. Two of the most prominent landmarks are also located here:

  1. The Gateway of India (Indian Gateway)
  2. The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel – A magnificent 5-star hotel that looks like a palace facing the sea.

This scene is frequently printed on postcards as the iconic symbol of the glamorous city of Mumbai. From morning until evening, especially when the air is cool, tourists gather here to enjoy the sea breeze and join tours organized by the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation.

In this area, there are two famous large stone statues:

The statue of the philosopher Swami Vivekananda, a renowned 19th-century Indian figure.

The statue of the Maratha leader Shivaji on horseback, situated at the center of a five-way intersection facing the Gateway of India.

Reflections on the Coast and the Mumbai City

We visited the beach in Mumbai for a quick 15-minute dip. The water was shallow, not very clear, and lacked that deep blue hue. To me, the sea at Bombay isn’t as charming or beautiful as Nha Trang or Vung Tau. Perhaps my love for my homeland makes me feel closer to our own landscapes. That is a very subjective observation, not scientific or objective at all, isn’t it?

However, I do remember a certain corner of the Bombay coast where flame trees (Poinciana) were in full red bloom, as it was May, along the white sands. On the other side of the road were luxurious avenues and skyscrapers reaching into the clouds, similar to Hong Kong or the US. I took a few photos of those bright red blossoms against the backdrop of the rippling waves and grand buildings. Vietnam doesn’t quite have a seascape like that, does it?

Bombay University

Entering the campus of Bombay University felt more like entering a Christian cathedral than an ancient British university. Established by the British in the 18th century, the architecture is entirely English. In the courtyard stands a pointed clock tower that resembles a church spire. Every hour, the bells chime with a solemn, majestic sound that carries for miles. You can see the tip of that clock tower from a great distance.

New Mumbai

To get to the island of New Mumbai (Navi Mumbai), we had to take a boat for over an hour. It is a newly developing area with a multi-story station as modern as the ones in Taipei, and many shopping malls are opening. The potential for growth there is

clearly immense.

 5.6.  THE ELEPHANTA CAVES

We purchased tickets for the ferry to the Elephanta Islands on the opposite shore for 50 Rupees each. We departed at 9:00 AM and returned to the boat by 2:00 PM.

We had heard these caves were not as vast as the Buddhist caves of Ajanta and Ellora (also in Maharashtra). However, we still found Elephanta immense and impressive, a testament to human labor.

 
  clip_image118.jpg

Front of Elephanta Caves.

 

The caves are situated atop the island and descend deep into the earth; they are so cold and dark that we had to use flashlights to navigate.

The stone statues are carved in relief directly into the mountain walls. Since they are unpainted and share the color of the rock, one must look closely or touch them to fully perceive the carvings. It is common to see dozens of statues three or four

times the size of a human. I wondered how human strength alone, through daily chiseling, could create such masterpieces. Like the Great Wall of China, these were built from human sweat and tears.

Lal Zikpuii mentioned that Ajanta and Ellora comprise 30 large caves that are pure Buddhist sites, filled with stalactites, stone pillars, and places where the Buddha’s great disciples and patriarchs once meditated. I told her that I must find an opportunity to visit those sites before returning to Vietnam.

The Divine Sculptures

The most famous feature of the Elephanta Caves is the

Maheshmurti (Trimurti) statue with three heads, representing:

  • Brahma: The Creator
  • Vishnu: The Preserver
  • Shiva: The Destroyer (for rebirth)

There is also a statue of Lord Shiva as Ardhanarishvara, representing the union of both male and female genders in one body. Other carvings depict the divine smiles of Shiva and his consort Parvati, or Shiva performing the Tandava dance, which causes the earth to tremble. You can also find statues of Ravana clutching his soul-home, Kailasa, and the demon of Lanka.

We didn’t take many photos here, as it is not our religion. Meanwhile, Lal Zikpuii, though Christian, was clicking away enthusiastically; even as a resident of India, this was her first time here, just like us.

The Monkey Encounter

Monkeys are everywhere here due to the caves and the high mountain forests (though the parks in Delhi, where we live, are also full of monkeys and squirrels…). As I was leisurely walking down the stone steps toward the boat, swinging a plastic

bag containing a bottle of medicated oil, some candy, and my keys, the monkeys must have caught the sweet scent. A troop suddenly rushed me, startling me half to death. They snatched the bag and vanished instantly.

Local Indian boys who were street vendors saw this and gave chase. Only my room keys were of any value; the rest I could do without. It was an exciting pursuit! These boys practically lived in the caves and mountains, so they could run and jump just like the monkeys. They managed to reclaim the bag, and the terrified monkey fled into the high, thick branches. I took back my keys and gave the rest of the bag’s contents to the boys as a reward.

Travelogue beautifully captures the intersection of ancient history, personal belief, and the lighthearted mishaps that happen on the road. The contrast between the silent, dark caves of Elephanta and the bustling, British-style architecture of Bombay University provides a vivid picture of the city’s layered identity.

 5.7.   MADRAS (CHENNAI)

The journey continues southward! Moving from the glamour of Mumbai to the grit and history of Madras (now Chennai) provides a very different perspective on the Indian subcontinent. Our observations on the density of the population and the “self- reliant” spirit of the South are quite astute.

The following afternoon, we boarded a train from Mumbai to Madras. Because we had booked our tickets a month in advance, our plans remained on track. After nearly 31 hours on the train, we arrived at the Madras railway station at 7:00 PM.

The station, as always, was crowded and noisy, even at night. People hurried and jostled past one another. It felt as though an endless sea of people had gathered there! Not just during the

day, but even late at night, the station was packed with people waiting for trains. Many were lying down on cloths spread across the floor, not just the homeless, but ordinary passengers waiting with a sense of calm self-possession. With such a massive population, only the trains, each carrying thousands of people, can handle the transport needs; no bus or car could manage such a load.

A Note on Population and Daily Life

India’s population is the second largest in the world, trailing only China. Looking at the statistics:

  • 1961: 439 million
  • 1971: 547 million
  • 1982: 687 million
  • 1991: 943 million
  • 1995: 930 million (approx.)

By 1998, the numbers had surely climbed even higher. Compared to Vietnam’s population of over 80 million at the time, these figures are staggering, aren’t they?

It was May, the peak of summer, and I noticed that Indians eat a great deal of onions and garlic daily. Initially, most of us monks and nuns tried to keep the Bodhisattva precepts by avoiding these “five pungent spices.” However, we eventually had to adapt to prevent colds and typhoid. Furthermore, when traveling or studying, almost every Indian dish contains them. Especially in the hostels, even the vegetarian meals include onions and garlic. Since we were too busy to cook for ourselves every day, we ended up eating everything! Curiously, the onions here are not as pungent as those in Vietnam.

First Impressions of the Madras City

Madras is India’s fourth-largest city and the capital of Tamil Nadu. It seemed to have fewer foreign tourists, businesses, or students than Mumbai or Delhi. I found the streets aging, the houses covered in dust, and the air thick with smoke. Auto- rickshaws were the primary mode of transport; taxis were rare. On the streets, one mostly saw busy Indian men carrying many bags, their clothes somewhat untidy. The markets and supermarkets were simple; the city lacked the variety and luxury found in Delhi.

The people here speak Tamil (though the text mentions Marathi, which is the language of Mumbai/Maharashtra; Tamil is the native language of Madras). They have a strong sense of self- reliance and their own distinct film industry (Kollywood), even if the economy doesn’t feel as vibrant as Mumbai’s.

 
  clip_image045.gif

The Sights of Madras

Madras Beach and Mahatma Gandhi

We visited the beach early in the morning. Unlike the calm, receding tides we saw in Mumbai, the waves here were powerful. Despite the intensity, Sanya, Yankna, and Lal Zikpuii insisted on swimming. After 20 minutes, we were freezing and went to a nearby freshwater pool to rinse off.

At the shore, there is a modern plaza with a triple-gate (tam quan) architectural style, similar to images I’ve seen from China. Nearby is a large seaside park featuring a very sharp, lifelike statue of Mahatma Gandhi, the great leader who led India to independence from British rule.

Fort St. George

We also visited Fort St. George, a very sturdy fortress built in

1653 by the British East India Company. It has undergone many changes and repairs over the centuries and now serves as the Legislative Assembly and the Administrative headquarters for the Madras government.

The Government Museum: A Treasure Trove

The highlight of Madras was the Government Museum on Pantheon Road. This grand building houses an incredible collection of archaeological finds from South Indian dynasties like the Chola, Vijayanagar, and Chalukya.

The museum features extensive galleries on anthropology and ancient bronzes. Most importantly for us, it has a rich collection of stone and bronze statues depicting the life of the Buddha: his renunciation, enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the turning of the Dhamma wheel, and his entry into Parinirvana.

I must admit, this is the most massive museum I have ever visited, with dozens of large rooms across multiple floors. It is easy to get lost. Unfortunately, we arrived on a Thursday afternoon and only saw a small portion before closing time. We planned to return Friday morning to take photos of the ancient Buddhist statues for research, but to our great disappointment, we discovered the museum is closed on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays. Since we couldn’t wait three days, we had to leave Madras with heavy hearts and a deep sense of regret.

 5.8.   NAINI TAL

Travelogue of Naini Tal captures a beautiful blend of spiritual mythology, natural wonder, and the warm camaraderie of the Vietnamese student community in India. It is quite moving to read about a Mid-Autumn Festival celebrated so far from home, with traditional mooncakes brought all the way from Vietnam to the chilly Himalayan foothills.

In the autumn of 1997, the Vietnamese International Students’ Association in Delhi, organized by Ven. H.C. arranged a trip to the lake district of Naini Tal. Our group consisted of 30 monks and nuns and 10 lay students, despite a frustrating start with a delayed bus that forced us to sleep on the floor at Ven. H.C.’s house, we finally set off the next afternoon on a single bus, which kept our large group together and spirited.

 
  clip_image120.jpg

Group Portrait of Vietnamese Monastic Students at Naini Tal. October 07, 1997. Featuring Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (third seated position from the right,

brown dress) during an autumn academic recess.

 

The Emerald Abode

Naini Tal is situated along the slopes of the Kumaon hills in Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand). The town surrounds the Naini Lake (or Tal), a breathtaking body of water framed by emerald meadows and misty ridges.

The lake has a hauntingly beautiful legend. It is said to be the emerald-green eye of the Goddess Sati, the consort of Lord

Shiva. According to mythology, after the Goddess immolated herself, Shiva carried her charred remains across India; where her eye fell, Naini Lake was formed. The Naini Devi Temple stands at the northern edge of the lake as a testament to this devotion.

Sights and Souvenirs

We explored the Tibetan Market, which was bustling with goods from the nearby border. While many students from Hanoi bought heaps of souvenirs, I spent my time admiring the exquisite wax candles. They were crafted into intricate shapes, ice cream sundaes, clusters of grapes, the Statue of Liberty, and even little kittens with doe-like eyes.

We also visited:

  • Hanumangarhi Temple: A serene temple that sits like a “One Pillar Pagoda” in the middle of a lake. Getting there required a 10-minute boat ride through shimmering waters, offering views of peaceful pastures where cattle grazed under the blue sky.
  • The Astronomical Observatory: Located about a kilometer away, it is perched high on a ridge. Unfortunately, the thick autumn fog, common in these highlands, prevented us from entering, as the visibility was nearly zero.

The View from the Peak

To see the “Snow View,” we took a cable car (a small iron cabin holding about 20 people) to a peak. From there, one can usually see Nanda Devi, the highest peak entirely within India, and the distant white wall of the Himalayas. However, just as with my trip to Everest, the “Snow Goddess” remained hidden behind a veil of thick white clouds and drifting mist.

A Mid-Autumn Night to Remember

The most touching part of the trip was a surprise Mid-Autumn Festival (Trung Thu) party organized by Ven. H.C. Having lived in India for three years, I had almost forgotten the taste of home. Suddenly, in a small room by the freezing lake, fragrant bánh dẻo (soft sticky rice mooncakes) from Vietnam were laid out.

It wasn’t a typical Mid-Autumn night with a clear moon and children’s lanterns. Instead, we were huddled in sweaters and wool hats, shivering as we sat around flickering white candles. We sang together with the innocence of children, many of the monks from the “3rd Generation” of students turned out to be “top-tier singers!”

We will always be grateful to Ven. H.C. for that night. It turned a cold, misty journey into a deeply warm memory. As I looked out the window, the wind was rising, signaling an approaching rain, but the warmth of that small room remained in my heart.

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

clip_image121.gif

 
  clip_image122.gif


 Volume II

 

CHAPTER 6

BUDDHIST LEGACY

 AND INTERNATIONAL CONNECTIONS

  1. The Maitreya Buddha Statue Construction Project in Bodh Gaya, India
  2. Ten Days of Dharma Teachings by His Holiness the Dalai Lama in Bodh Gaya
  3. His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the Early Days of the Year 2000 Millennium in Sārnāth (Deer Park)
  4. Challenges in Inter-Religious Partnership Relations
  5. The Sixth Sakyadhita International Conference
  6. The History of the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya
  7. An Overview of the Current Nālandā University
  8. Nālandā in Ancient and Buddhist Literature
  9. The Golden Age of Nālandā University
  10. The Buddha’s Message on Education
  11. An Introduction to Buddhism in Asia and Europe During the 20th Century
  12. Reflections on Global Peace
  13. The Pure Lotus
  1. Meditations on the Day of the Buddha’s Enlightenment
  2. The Celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment and Symposium in Bodh Gaya
  3. The Seventh Sakyadhita International Conference
 
  clip_image045.gif

 6.1. THE MAITREYA BUDDHA STATUE CONSTRUCTION PROJECT

 IN BODH GAYA, INDIA

During the final days of 1999, visitors to Bodh Gaya would have noticed two prominent events:

  • The ten-day Dharma teaching program (December 20, 1999, to December 29, 1999) by His Holiness the Dalai
  • The fundraising campaign for The Maitreya Project, a project to build the world’s largest statue of Maitreya Buddha in Bodh Gaya.

In this article, I would like to introduce the second event. Bodh Gaya, often known as Buddhagaya, is situated to the west along the banks of the Niranjana River in the town of Gaya, Bihar state. Bodh Gaya is the most important and sacred site in Buddhist history; not only does it mark where Shravaka Gautama meditated for 49 days and became the Buddha named Shakyamuni, but it also marks where countless Buddhas of the past attained enlightenment and where, in the future, Maitreya Buddha will practice and attain Buddhahood.

Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit word Maitri, meaning boundless loving-kindness (Universal Love). Maitreya Buddha is the Future Buddha, the next Buddha following Shakyamuni Buddha to be born into this world. He will use his infinite

loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity to turn the wheel of Dharma and guide sentient beings on the path to escape suffering.

Mahayana Buddhism teaches that after many thousands of years, once the eras of the Right Dharma and the Formal Dharma have passed and the era of the Dharma-Ending Age arrives, humanity will no longer know the Buddha, Dharma, or Sangha. People will lose sight of wisdom, morality, and ethics. Dark ignorance will reign; life will consist only of indulging in sensual pleasures and committing sins. As a result, merit will diminish, and human lifespans will shorten to only about ten years. Furthermore, human bodies will become ugly, deformed, and malodorous, and life will be characterized by poverty, scarcity, and suffering.

As thousands of years pass, humans will begin to practice virtue and cultivate merit again, causing the lifespan to increase to 80,000 years. Then, time will pass again, and as people cease to practice, it will decrease back to ten years… it is at that time that Maitreya Buddha will appear in the world to turn the wheel of Dharma and show sentient beings the way to free themselves from the shackles of suffering. He will use his infinite loving- kindness to aid all beings and bring peace and happiness to every suffering soul. Therefore, Maitreya Buddha is the future savior of humanity.

1.1.  THE ORGANIZATION AND VISION

The construction of this world-record-breaking statue is undertaken by The Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition (FPMT). This is an international Mahayana Buddhist organization that has established over 112 projects, including monasteries, retreat centers, meditation centers, hospices, hospitals, and schools across 24 countries.

In 1974, the famous Tibetan Lama, Lama Thubten Yeshe, founded the FPMT with the intention of preserving and

spreading the supreme wisdom of Buddhism to all people. This Lama often said that Bodh Gaya is “the root” from which all the Buddha’s teachings originated. To specifically express gratitude for the kindness of India, where this root exists, he dreamed of building a statue of Maitreya Buddha in Bodh Gaya, where past, present, and future Buddhas attain enlightenment.

Unfortunately, before his wish was fulfilled, Lama Yeshe passed away in 1984. His disciple, Lama Zopa Rinpoche, became his successor as the leader of FPMT and vowed to realize his teacher’s dream. In 1987, a Spanish boy was recognized by the 14th Dalai Lama as the reincarnation of Lama Yeshe. This boy was ordained in the Tibetan tradition and is known as Lama Osel Rinpoche. He is currently studying at Sera Monastery in South India.

1.2.  UNPRECEDENTED SCALE

Currently, at the Daijokyo-Japan temple in Bodh Gaya, there is an outdoor meditating Buddha statue built in 1989 that stands nearly 26 meters (80 feet) tall. In the US, the Statue of Liberty stands 48 meters tall. In Tokyo, Japan, the Ushiku Daibutsu Buddha stands 80 meters tall. Compared to a human height of

1.6 meters, these statues are already massive! However, no one could imagine that the bronze Maitreya Buddha statue project in Bodh Gaya is planned to be 152.4 meters (500 feet) tall.

Furthermore, we should not assume that Maitreya Buddha must always be depicted as the “Laughing Buddha” with a round head and a large belly (often resembling the Earth God). Instead of holding a fan, that popular depiction often holds prayer beads or carries a sack of food, sometimes with six mischievous children (representing the “six thieves” or senses) climbing over him. While that is the common image of Maitreya in Vietnam, the statue to be built in Bodh Gaya will be based on art styles from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, when Indian artistic models were highly prevalent.

This style of Maitreya statue is also found in neighboring countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, China, and Korea. Traditionally, many Tibetan monasteries worship large statues of this type; for example, Tashilhunpo Monastery has a Maitreya statue 26 meters (80 feet) tall. In Nepal, the famous Rinpoche Chogye Trichen built a Maitreya statue about three stories high at his monastery.

The 152.4-meter statue in Bodh Gaya will be cast in golden bronze, using a blend of modern and traditional art. With its extreme height and supreme aesthetic quality, the FPMT hopes this masterpiece will join the list of wonders of the world as the tallest Buddha statue on Earth.

1.3.  THE MAITREYA PROJECT LAND

The statue, equivalent to a 50-story building, will be situated in a 45-acre park (one acre = 4,046 square meters). The Maitreya Project Land is located about 3 kilometers from the Mahabodhi Temple.

Beyond the great bronze statue, the FPMT intends to build millions of other smaller works within the hollow body of the bronze Buddha, in the grand halls, and around the park. The goal is for this site to become a “Maitreya Mandala,” a Long Hoa Assembly, an ideal center for practice and pilgrimage.

The Main Hall will be as tall as a 17-story temple, capable of holding over 4,000 people, with hundreds of thousands of statues and paintings set into the corners or carved into the walls. It will feature:

  • Statues of Shakyamuni and Maitreya are nearly 5 meters (50 feet) tall.
  • A massive silk thangka of Maitreya
  • 100,000 small statues of Maitreya and
  • Paintings or statues of 1,000
  • Artistic depictions   of    the    path    to    Bodhicitta    and
  • Silk thangkas of the lives of Lama Tsongkhapa and the
  • Statues of the “Eight Great Indian Panditas” and the names of 100,000 Buddhas are engraved on wall

Inside the 152.4-meter bronze statue, relics of Shakyamuni Buddha, great saints, and masters will be enshrined. It will house the Thousand-Armed Chenrezig, 21 Taras, Medicine Buddhas, 16 Arhats, 35 Buddhas, and Lama Thubten Yeshe. It will also contain Prajnaparamita Sūtras written in gold, silver, pearl, and agate, as well as protective deities such as Mitukpa, Kunrig, Vajrasattva, Namgyalma, Amitayus, White Tara, and the Eight Bodhisattvas.

The 45-acre park will also feature:

  • 100,000
  • Meditation rooms decorated with statues and Jataka tales (birth stories of the Buddha).
  • A monastery for monks and another for nuns.
  • A hospital combining Western, Ayurvedic, and Tibetan
  • A school and a conference/teaching
  • A guest house for pilgrims.
  • A nature park for children with animals and brooks.

1.4.  ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACT

According to Mr. Peter Kedge, who is directly in charge of the architectural and artistic aspects, the project’s cost will exceed

150 million US dollars, with a construction time of about 5 to 6 years. They aim to complete it by December 2004 or January 2005. The statue is designed to last at least 1,000 years.

The immediate benefit is for the people of India, especially those in Bodh Gaya. Located in the state of Bihar, Bodh Gaya is an arid land where people face poverty, and housing is sparse, with no major factories or workshops. Once completed, this statue will be a major tourist attraction. Tourism revenue will bring prosperity and a more stable spiritual life to the local residents.

Even during construction, the project provides jobs for thousands of Indian workers, including architects, engineers, financial experts, and gardeners. It is a major opportunity for the construction material industries in or near Bihar.

1.5.  ENDORSEMENT FROM THE LEADERSHIP

In March 1996, at the foundation stone-laying ceremony, the President of India, Shri K. R. Narayanan, stated:

“I am very pleased to learn that a bronze Maitreya Buddha statue will be built in Bodh Gaya. The prosperity of Buddhism is a testament to the values of Loving-kindness, Compassion, Joy, Equanimity, Selflessness, and Altruism. This Maitreya Project combines the spiritual and practical needs of Buddhists far and wide... I believe this project contributes to spreading the values of Peace and Equality among humanity.”

The FPMT also hopes that all visitors, regardless of whether they are clergy or laypeople, Buddhist or non-Buddhist, will experience a growth in Bodhicitta (the mind of enlightenment) after viewing the statue. The image of the Four Immeasurables (Loving-kindness, Compassion, Joy, Equanimity) is meant to soothe afflictions like greed, anger, ignorance, pride, and jealousy.

1.6.A CALL TO CONTRIBUTION

Regarding the merit of building statues and stupas, the Buddha once told King Sagya that for every atom of sand in a Buddha statue, the builder and donor would be reborn as a king of gods or humans that many times. For every grain of sand in a stupa or temple, that person would achieve meditative absorption and experience supreme peace in concentration, liberated from birth, old age, sickness, and death.

As the Vietnamese proverb says, “One tree cannot make a mountain, but three trees together can make a high hill.” To create deep merit in the Buddha Dharma, the FPMT and all Buddhists are encouraged to contribute according to their ability.

The project is currently under construction with the fervent hope of the FPMT to complete it before 2005. The 14th Dalai Lama (who gave ten days of teachings at the Kalachakra Hall in Bodh Gaya in December 1999) prayed for the project’s success, stating:

“This work is the result of our mental power and our vows… I sincerely appreciate the merit of the donors, the organizers, and everyone implementing this project.” (Bodh Gaya, January 1998)

With the same spirit, I sincerely pray for the successful completion of this project. While the required funding is vast, I believe that for noble causes done for the sake of others, the miraculous power of the Buddha and the inconceivable laws of the universe will inspire monks, nuns, and laypeople to unite their efforts.

The project awaits your contribution. May the inauguration of the Maitreya Project in Bodh Gaya be realized soon.

Namo Maitreya Buddha.

 

Written at the Mahabodhi Mahavihar Library, Bodh Gaya, India.

The final night (December 31) of the year 1999.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Reference:

  • The Maitreya Project, FPMT,

6.2. TEN DAYS OF DHARMA TEACHINGS BY HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA

IN BODH GAYA

Bodh Gaya is the place where, over twenty centuries ago, Shravaka Gautama meditated beneath the leafy Bodhi tree beside the cool, emerald waters of the Niranjana River. Seated upon a handful of Kusa grass offered by a shepherd, he attained Great Enlightenment in the final watch of the 49th night, becoming Shakyamuni Buddha. From that moment, this site became the most sacred center of pilgrimage for Buddhists from India and across the entire world.

On major festivals like Vesak or the Day of Enlightenment, the grounds are a vibrant mosaic of robes: the deep maroon of Tibetan monastics, the dark saffron of Indian and Burmese monks, the bright yellow of Vietnamese and Western sanghas, the vivid orange of Sri Lankans and Thais, and the black of Taiwanese and Japanese traditions.

However, during these ten days (December 20–29, 1999), Bodh Gaya was transformed into a pure land of the Tibetan tradition due to the presence of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama. With over 5,000 Tibetan monastics in deep maroon robes gathering

for his teachings, the town felt like a mythical scene from the Himalayas.

The Atmosphere of the Gathering

The path leading to the Mahabodhi Temple and the Kalachakra Maidan (the teaching ground) was filled with monks, nuns, and Western practitioners in Tibetan robes. Their faces were serene and peaceful. Among them were many young novices, aged 7 to 15, radiant and nimble in their robes of liberation.

Joining these monastics were over 2,000 lay Buddhists from Western Europe (USA, Sweden, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium) and South Asia (Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam).

To accommodate this massive influx, temporary Tibetan markets sprang up along the roadsides, selling everything from winter clothing and footwear to video tapes, Sūtras, Buddha statues, and Tibetan-style postcards. Nomadic-style tents were converted into “restaurants” serving delicious, affordable Tibetan food, while other tents served as “guest houses” for the poorer Tibetan pilgrims. Standing on the hill looking down, one would forget this was a typical Indian town; for these ten days, it was a sovereign land of Tibetan Buddhist life.

2.1.  THE ESSENCE OF THE TEACHINGS

His Holiness focused his lectures on two profound texts:

Shiksa Samuccaya (Compendium of Training) by Shantideva.

Bodhisattvacharyavatara (The Way of the Bodhisattva) by Shantideva.

Our group (Venerables GN, TD, BC, DV, and me) attended two sessions daily: from 9:00 to 11:00 AM and 1:30 to 4:30 PM. His words felt like a powerful transmission of enlightened wisdom pouring into our hearts:

“...We are beings living in this world of five turbidities; we must liberate ourselves from the shackles of suffering and become free, happy individuals. We must transform ourselves from a life of ignorance and affliction to the peak of enlightenment... To do this, we must practice the Bodhisattva Path, immerse ourselves in saving others, and guide them out of the cycle of delusion. Resolve to end all causes of suffering for all beings. Vow to attain Buddhahood so that all beings may reach the ultimate peak of liberation.”

His Holiness spoke with strength and immense love. Between sections, he would look at the assembly and smile with a natural, fatherly warmth. Every session began with the thunderous, resonant sound of thousands of voices chanting in unison, accompanied by drums and bells. The deep, guttural “hừ... hừ...” chants of the Lamas in yellow crested hats felt like the primordial echoes of a mountain forest awakening.

2.2.  THE SACRED RITUALS

The sessions included the chanting of the Heart Sūtra, the Sūtra for Removing Obstacles, and prayers for the long life of His Holiness. Monks carried incense burners through the hall, the fragrant smoke rising as an offering. We also listened to the peaceful Pali chants of the Indian and Thai sanghas and the melodious, flute-like chanting of the Taiwanese monastics. During breaks, tea, bread, and small monetary offerings (Rupees) were distributed to the monastics, funded by the generosity of lay donors.

2.3.  SECURITY AND ORGANIZATION

Security was exceptionally tight. Attendees were not allowed to bring bags, electronics, cameras, or binoculars (except for licensed journalists). We were permitted only FM radios to listen to the simultaneous translations in English, Chinese, and Hindi. Before entering the Kalachakra Hall, everyone underwent a

rigorous search by the police.

The Maitreya Project sponsored the program, supported by over 150 staff and volunteers from across the globe. Donations were collected for several causes: the teachings, meals for the Sangha, the construction of the world’s tallest Maitreya statue, and the building of a hospital and school. The total cost for the 10-day event was estimated between $140,000 and $150,000 USD.

2.4.   WHISPERS OF COMPASSION

Along the fences of the Kalachakra Hall, seven banners featured verses from Shantideva and His Holiness in four languages. Some of the most moving included:

“May I be the doctor and the medicine, and may I be the nurse for all sick beings in the world until everyone is healed.”

“For as long as space endures and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world.”

“My religion is kindness.”

These words acted as a catalyst, reviving the Bodhicitta (the mind of enlightenment) in all of us.

2.5.A NIGHT OF REFLECTION

On the night of December 28, 1999, the wind died down, and the trees stood still. Thousands of candles flickered around the Great Stupa and the Kalachakra Hall. The eyes of the pilgrims reflected the candlelight; some filled with the sadness of saying goodbye to these ten days of wisdom.

The next day, His Holiness would depart for Varanasi to pray for the new millennium at the Sārnāth Stupa (the Deer Park), where he would read a Declaration of Peace on January 1, 2000.

Our group stayed in Bodh Gaya to attend the New Year’s Day ceremony at the Vietnam Buddha Quoc Tu (Viet Nam Phật Quốc Tự Temple of Master Huyen Dieu), which included the inauguration of a Peace Bell and a 10,000-candle offering at the Mahabodhi Stupa to pray for world peace.

As the night grew late and the fog thickened, I walked back toward the Vietnamese temple. The Tibetan market was still bustling with monks and locals, the air filled with the sounds of laughter and Tibetan music. Tomorrow, when the Dalai Lama leaves, this market and this unique world will vanish, returning Bodh Gaya to its quiet stillness.

But in truth, it remains. The image of the Dalai Lama and the strength of Tibetan Buddhism have contributed immensely to the revival of Buddhism in India, a faith that has survived destruction and upheaval to once again stand firm in Indian society.

I stopped to help two young novices, about 10 years old, who were playing with a ball. When I asked if they were going to Varanasi tomorrow, they beamed and said, “Yes!”

As I walked away, a sense of immense gratitude welled up in me. I whispered to myself in Vietnamese: “Thank you, Your Holiness. Thank you, Tibetan Buddhism. And thank you, little monks.”

Written at Vietnam Phật Quốc Tự Temple, 11:00 PM, December 28, 1999.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.3.HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA AND THE EARLY DAYS

OF THE MILLENNIUM YEAR 2000 IN SĀRNĀTH (DEER PARK)

As the Spring of 2000 approached, the first spring of the 21st century, people across the planet eagerly awaited the momentous turning of the new millennium. For those with religious faith, hearts turned toward their spiritual leaders in prayer. In India, thousands of monks, nuns, and lay Buddhists from Tibet, India, and abroad followed His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, the world-renowned leader of Tibetan Buddhism and 1989 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, to join him in prayer and receive his Dharma teachings during these significant moments of the century.

Let us trace the footsteps of His Holiness, his Sangha, and his disciples during these historic days:

December 14, 1999

His Holiness and the Tibetan Sangha traveled from the Dharamsala highlands to Sārnāth (Deer Park), where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of Dharma. Located near the city of Varanasi in the state of Uttar Pradesh, His Holiness resided at the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies (CIHTS) in Sārnāth.

December 15, 1999

  • From 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM: The inauguration ceremony of the Vajra Vidya Institute took place at the Tibetan temple in Kajuhi village, Sārnāth. Distinguished attendees included:
  • Professor Rinpoche (Vice-Chancellor of the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sārnāth).
  • Venerable Sirisumedha (Abbot of the Mahabodhi Society, Mulagandha Kuty Vihara, Sārnāth, and Joint

Secretary of the International Mahabodhi Society).

  • Numerous Tibetan Rinpoches and hundreds of Buddhists from Tibet, the West, and India.

December 17, 1999

  • 4:45 PM: His Holiness delivered a Dharma talk calling for world peace and the benefit of all humanity, urging everyone to live in solidarity and harmony according to the Buddha’s
  • 5:55 PM: At the Mahabodhi temple, 2,000 white candles were lit beneath the Bodhi tree to inaugurate 28 glass- encased Buddha statues built around its base. According to the Mahabodhi Society, this tree was grown from a sapling of the original Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, which King Ashoka’s son had brought to Sri Lanka. Under this sacred tree, His Holiness preached for 40 minutes in both English and Tibetan, praying for the prosperity of the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) to remain a guiding torch for all Dr. B. K. Modi, Vice President of the International Mahabodhi Society, introduced the history of the Sārnāth Bodhi tree and expressed profound gratitude to His Holiness for his presence.

December 18 – 29, 1999

On the morning of the 18th, His Holiness and the Sangha departed Sārnāth for Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s 49 days of meditation and enlightenment. From December 20 to 29, he conducted a ten-day teaching program on:

  1. Shikshasamuccaya (Compendium of Training) by
  2. Bodhicharyavatara (The Way of the Bodhisattva) by

December 30, 1999

His Holiness returned to Varanasi. At 5:00 PM, a solemn ceremony to bid farewell to the old year and welcome the year 2000 was held at the Ganges River (Ganga), organized by the Mahabodhi Society and Hindu organizations. Attendees included:

•         His Holiness the Dalai Lama.

  • B. K. Modi (Vice President of the International Mahabodhi Society).
  • Ashok Singhal (President of the Vishva Hindu Parishad, Delhi).
  • Venerable Rewatha (General Secretary of the International Mahabodhi Society).
  • Venerable K. Sirisumedha and Professor S. Rinpoche. Over 5,000 monks, nuns, and Buddhists from local and international communities gathered to hear His Holiness pray for world

January 1, 2000

On this historic first day of the third millennium:

8:30 AM: At the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sārnāth, His Holiness delivered a televised New Year 2000 and New Millennium address to the world.

9:30 AM: The India Tourism Development Corporation organized a grand Peace Conference at the Mahabodhi Society temple in Sārnāth.

11:30 AM – 12:30 PM: A meditation session was held at the Mulagandha Kuty Vihara to pray for world peace and the well- being of all people. This interfaith gathering included supreme leaders from Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Tibet, India), Hinduism

 

(representing 80% of India’s population), Islam, Christianity, Jainism, and the Bahá’í Faith.

January 2, 2000

His Holiness and the Tibetan Sangha bid farewell to Sārnāth and the sacred Ganges to travel to the capital, Delhi, where his message of peace for humanity was eagerly awaited.

Such were the meaningful journeys of His Holiness and the Tibetan Sangha during the historic dawn of the year 2000.

10:00 AM at Sārnāth, January 03, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

6..4. CHALLENGES

IN INTER-RELIGIOUS PARTNERSHIPS

In an era deeply disturbed by moral crises and social division, the need for us to understand our common humanity is essential to achieving lasting peace and tranquility. Such understanding regarding human existence and behavior is often provided by religion. Through the cultivation of a spiritual and humanitarian nature, religion has ennobled the lives of people everywhere, creating bonds and a unity of purpose within and across societies.

In a practical sense, religion provides the soil and the structural framework for spreading faith and ethics, uniting individuals into communities and giving meaningful direction to both collective and individual lives. The freedom to practice religion and belief is crucial, not only to satisfy the spiritual need for transcendence but also for building a harmonious and just way of life.

4.1.  THE CURRENT MISPERCEPTION OF RELIGION

Today, many people fail to grasp this sincere perspective.

To them, religion is seen merely as an ancient heirloom, a tradition passed down that has become cluttered with dogma and superstition. Many find it hard to believe in, viewing it as something best left to the elderly or to those with idle time. Consequently, many positive qualities of religious culture have been reduced to cumbersome rituals and blind faith, affecting everyone from the illiterate to the intellectual elite in every country.

What are the causes that make religion suspicious in modern society? Do religious traditions promote or hinder community? Do they act as forces for unity or division? Some argue it is futile to expect religion to provide the resources needed to face the challenges of the 21st century. Religions often appear to offer authoritarian perceptions and fail to emphasize social interdependence. Furthermore, at a time when the world desperately needs peacemakers, some traditions are seeing a rise in fundamentalism, extremism, and intolerance. This is exacerbated by the “politicization of religion and the religionization of policy,” which raises fears about the role of religion in public life.

4.2.  THE FIRST CHALLENGE: EXCLUSIVE CLAIMS TO TRUTH

The primary challenge facing religious followers in the new century is the claim of exclusive ownership of the truth, clinging to narrow interpretations of their own teachings. This stubborn refusal to appreciate and accept other beliefs can only lead to bitter opposition and useless division.

The Inter-religious Dialogue titled “Towards a Global Ethic,” held in Chicago in 1993 to commemorate the centenary of the first Parliament of the World’s Religions (1893), was established by spiritual leaders in response to the world’s spiritual shifts. This was followed by conferences in Cape Town (1999) and the Millennium World Peace Summit in New York in August

  1. These gatherings proved that the world’s religions are finding common ground to work in harmony, declaring:

“We affirm that a common set of core spiritual values found in all scriptures forms an ethical foundation... Ancient guidelines for human behavior already exist within the world’s religions, and these are conditions for a harmonious world order.”

4.3.  THE “GOLDEN RULE” AS A BRIDGE

Ethics, such as the “Golden Rule,” are a vital part of humanity’s spiritual heritage. Taught in one form or another in all world religions, this rule serves as an excellent starting point for building bridges across religious walls. We must move beyond a focus on social customs to emphasize spiritual, moral energy, and a dedication to applying truth in every field of human endeavor. Recognizing “unity in diversity” implies the development of a global consciousness and a sense of world citizenship.

4.4.    INTEGRATING RELIGION AND SCIENCE

If religious leaders are to face these challenges, they must acknowledge that religion and science are two essential systems of knowledge for the development of consciousness. The insights and skills generated by scientific progress must always be accompanied by spiritual and moral guidance to ensure their proper application. Educators must move away from aggressive individualism and instead nurture ideas of service and love.

4.5.             EIGHT      GLOBAL      SHIFTS      AND      SOCIAL CHALLENGES

The disintegration of the old world order and the emergence of a new social order based on “unity in diversity” are accompanied by several critical trends:

Breakdown of traditional structures: The collapse of family and social structures, alongside the rise of substance abuse, unemployment, violence, and divorce.

Economic transformation: The shift from agriculture and industry to a global economy dependent on advanced technology.

Urbanization: The world shifting from rural to urban living.

Environmental destruction: The degradation of the natural environment.

Increased diversity: A dramatic increase in ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity within communities due to migration and war.

Rising hatred: An increase in inter-ethnic animosity and an apparent inability to resolve international conflicts.

Mass media influence: In the US, for example, a high school graduate will have spent 15,000 hours in the classroom but 18,000 hours watching television, often filled with violence and depravity.

Knowledge explosion: Exponential growth in technology leading to moral dilemmas in medicine, law, and politics.

4.6.    CONCLUSION: A CALL TO ACTION

While society is transforming rapidly, global education has yet to see significant change. This is the great challenge inter- religious partnerships must overcome.

If we are to be active participants in building a global civilization, we cannot remain passive. With global vision, spiritual realization, and a sense of purpose, we can fulfill the mission: “Dedicated to service, for the well-being of all.”

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Towards a Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor: Singh,

7–10 December 2003, New Delhi.

  • Unity in Diversity (Thoughts of the World’s Great Religions),

O.P. Ghai, Foreword by Dr. Karan Singh, Sterling Publishers PVT. LTD, New Delhi-3.

6.5. THE SIXTH SAKYADHITA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE IN NEPAL

“Sakyadhita,” meaning “Daughters of the Buddha,” is the name of the International Association of Buddhist Women. It brings together Buddhist women from over twenty countries across Asia, Europe, and the Americas, including both monastics and lay practitioners, to practice the Buddha’s teachings for the liberation of themselves and others. The association’s core objectives are:

  1. To create a communication network among Buddhist women
  2. To foster harmony among different Buddhist
  3. To train monastics and educated laywomen in spreading the
  4. To advocate for and facilitate the transmission of higher ordination for nuns.
  5. To research scriptures and issues concerning women in the Vinaya (monastic law).
  6. To apply Buddhist teachings for the sake of world

The International Association of Buddhist Women was founded in Bodh Gaya, India, in February 1987. The founding leadership included Mrs. Ranjani de Silva (Sri Lanka) as President, Koko Kawanami (Japan) as Vice President, Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo (USA, Tibetan tradition) as Secretary, and Mrs. Gabriela

Kuestermann (Germany) as Treasurer.

Subsequent conferences were held in Bangkok (1991), Colombo (1993), Ladakh (1995), and Phnom Penh (1997). With nearly 130 million members, including over 60,000 senior and junior nuns, Sakyadhita represents a powerful force of Buddhist women dedicated to protecting our world through spiritual, social, and economic efforts.

5.1.  THE SIXTH CONFERENCE IN LUMBINI, NEPAL

The Sixth Sakyadhita Conference took place from February 1 to February 7, 2000, in Lumbini, Nepal, the birthplace of the Buddha. The theme was “Women as Peacemakers: For Themselves, Their Families, Their Societies, and the World.”

 

 
  clip_image124.jpg

 

Global Sisterhood in Dharma: The 6th Sakyadhita Conference, Nepal. February 07, 2000. Ven. Karma Lekshe Tsomo, founder of Sakyadhita (fourth from right), Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (far left) with international delegates.

 

Over 200 members, including senior nuns and laypeople from

countries such asAustralia, the USA, Germany, Canada, Vietnam, and many others, gathered at the International Gautami Nuns Temple. Our group, consisting of eight Vietnamese nun- students and one laywoman studying in India, joined this joyful assembly at the dawn of the new millennium.

5.2.  CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS

The daily schedule was rigorous and spiritual, beginning with meditation at 7:00 AM and concluding with cultural exchanges and chanting in the evenings. English served as the primary language, with translations into Tibetan for the large local contingent.

The presentations covered a wide range of topics:

  • Venerable Thuan Dinh presented on the role of Vietnamese women and monastics in the modern era.
  • Elise A. Devido spoke about the Buddhist nuns of Taiwan, noting that they now outnumber monks three-to-one and lead the world in social service, education, and Dharma
  • Trina Nahm-Mijo from Hawaii proposed “10 Precepts of Compassion” for the new millennium, addressing issues like family happiness, literacy, drug abuse, and environmental protection.
  • Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo discussed the intersections of family, monastery, and

A particularly joyful moment occurred during an art session where attendees were asked to draw their visions. Some drew Sakyadhita members holding hands in a circle around the globe; others painted peaceful thatched huts on pine hills or hearts linked together as an offering to the Buddhas.

5.3.  PROPOSALS FOR THE FUTURE

Before the closing ceremony, participants shared their “swallows of thought,” suggestions for the association’s growth. Key proposals included:

Utilizing the internet and multilingual publications to reach more women in Asia.

Establishing health centers, schools, and self-sufficient agricultural projects.

Advocating for a unified global nunnery and increasing support for laywomen (upasikas).

A “Vietnamese Swallow”: One of our members proposed that the 7th Conference be held in Vietnam, which was met with joyful laughter and applause.

5.4.  PILGRIMAGE AND REFLECTIONS

Following the conference, the group visited sacred sites, including:

Lumbini and Kapilavastu (the Buddha’s childhood home).

Swayambhu Temple in Kathmandu: We arrived during the spring festival of Basanta Panchami, watching thousands of students write their names on the stupa walls to pray for success in their studies.

Boudhanath Stupa: Where the compassionate eyes of the Buddha look out toward the snow-capped Himalayas.

Namo Buddha: We braved treacherous mountain roads to reach the site where, in a past life, the Bodhisattva sacrificed his body to feed a starving tigress.

As we bid farewell on the evening of February 12, 2000, there was a bittersweet sense of parting. Like birds returning to our respective missions, we carried with us the memories of two

weeks spent practicing and learning together. We pressed our hands together in the shape of lotus buds, wishing for our paths to cross again.

How meaningful it was to welcome the first spring of the year 2000 at the birthplace of the Buddha, as “Women bringing Peace to themselves, their families, their societies, and the world.”

Delhi, February 23, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.6. HISTORY OF THE BODHI TREE AT BODH GAYA

Buddhism is the world’s oldest historical religion. Christianity emerged 600 years after Buddhism, and Islam followed 1,200 years later. In India, Buddhism flourished for 1,500 years before facing centuries of decline and destruction. Sacred sites like Bodh Gaya, Sārnāth, and Vulture Peak were reduced to ruins. For centuries, the holy sites were forgotten by history until their recovery began in the late 19th century. On the occasion of the Enlightenment Day (Buddhist Era 2544), I wish to introduce the history of the Bodhi tree, the silent witness to the Buddha’s realization.

6.1.  THE SACRED NATURE OF THE TREE

The Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa) was known as the Asvatthi or Pipal. In the context of the Buddha, it is the “Tree of Enlightenment.” Long before Buddhism, ancient Indians held a deep reverence for giant trees, believing them to be the abodes of spirits and deities.109

This concept of tree worship reached its zenith with the Bodhi

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Pategama Gnanagama, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, p. 45; Dharmadoot, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Sarnath-2000.

tree at Bodh Gaya. Its significance lies in the fact that the Buddha spent the entire week after his enlightenment gazing at the tree with unblinking eyes (Animisa-locana) in a gesture of profound gratitude for the shelter it provided him during his 49-day struggle.110

During the period when Buddhism emerged in India, the belief that these trees served as dwellings for deities and spirits became even more deeply ingrained. Buddhist scriptures, such as the Vimanavatthu (Stories of the Celestial Mansions)111 and the Petavatthu (Stories of the Hungry Ghosts)112, also recount numerous tales regarding the habitations of gods and ghosts within trees.

In the Mahā-Parinibbāna Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), the Buddha declared to Ven. Ānanda, that Bodh Gaya, where the Bodhi tree stands, is one of the four holy sites that a person of faith should visit with devotion and reverence. He further added, “Those who pass away with a heart full of faith while on such a pilgrimage will be reborn in a realm of happiness.”113

6.2.  THE TREE THROUGH HISTORY

The Mauryan Era: King Ashoka and the First Branch

 
  clip_image047.gif


In the 3rd century BCE, King Ashoka, the great Buddhist emperor, protected the tree with deep devotion. His daughter,

  • Gnamarama Ven., Aspects of Early Buddhist Sociologist Thought, p. 163.
  • Vimanavatthu (Pali: Vimānavatthu); Vietnamese: Chuyện Thiên Cung or Thiên Cung Sự. This is one of the fifteen books of the Khuddaka Nikaya (Minor Collection/Tiểu Bộ Kinh), consisting of stories about beings reborn in the celestial realms.
  • Petavatthu (Pali): Stories of the Hungry Ghosts. Like the Vimanavatthu, this is one of the fifteen books of the Khuddaka Nikaya (Minor Collection). it consists of stories detailing the sufferings of beings reborn in the realm of the “hungry ghosts” (pretas) due to their past unwholesome actions, particularly stinginess and attachment.
  • Digha Nikaya, II, Pali Text Society, 1886, p. 141.

Mahathera Narada, The Buddha and His Teaching, Colombo, 1973, p. 257- 258.

the nun Sanghamitta, took a sapling from the southern branch of the original tree and transported it to Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. While the mother tree in Bodh Gaya was destroyed multiple times over the centuries, the branch in Sri Lanka survived. Today, that tree, the Sri Maha Bodhi, is recognized as the oldest historically documented tree in the world.

6.3.   DESTRUCTION AND MIRACULOUS REBIRTH

Throughout history, the Bodhi tree faced numerous attempts at destruction:

  • Queen Tishyarakshita: Jealous of Ashoka’s devotion to the tree, his queen reportedly had the tree cut Ashoka managed to revive it by bathing the roots in scented milk.
  • King Sasanka: An anti-Buddhist ruler in the 7th century CE, he cut the tree to the ground and attempted to burn the roots with sugarcane juice. However, King Purnavarman, a descendant of Ashoka, revived it once more, building a 24- foot wall to protect it.

6.4.   RECORDS OF CHINESE PILGRIMS

The accounts of Chinese monks provide a window into the tree’s past:

  • Faxian (400 CE): Described the stupas and the lush environment surrounding the Pei-to (Bodhi)
  • Xuanzang (629 CE): Reported that the tree was surrounded by a solid brick wall. He noted that while the tree was often hacked or burnt by hostile kings, it miraculously bloomed He described its leaves as remaining lustrous and green throughout the seasons, only falling on the Buddha’s Parinirvana day.

6.5.  THE MODERN RECOVERY

By the late 19th century, the holy site had fallen into total

disrepair. Alexander Cunningham, the British archaeologist, visited in 1862 and found the tree aging and decaying. In 1876, a severe storm blew down the remains of the old tree.

Fortunately, seeds and saplings from the old tree were recovered. The current tree growing behind the Mahabodhi Temple is a direct descendant. Additionally, in 1891, Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala (founder of the Maha Bodhi Society) began the long process of reclaiming Bodh Gaya for the Buddhist world.

In 1931, three saplings taken from the Sri Maha Bodhi in Sri Lanka (the original 3rd-century BCE branch) were brought back to India and planted at Sārnāth, completing a spiritual circle from Bodh Gaya to Sri Lanka and back to the site of the First Sermon.

The Maha Bodhi journal (Bodh Gaya, July 1903)114 states: “The original Bodhi Tree under which the Blessed Buddha

(Bhagawan) meditated no longer exists. It was destroyed in 1874 (BE 2418). A sapling from this original tree had been brought by Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, daughter of Emperor Ashoka, and planted in the capital of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. When the parent tree was destroyed in 1874, a new sapling grew from the site; that is the lush Bodhi Tree currently at Bodh Gaya today, thriving with dense green foliage.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


When Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala (founder of the Maha Bodhi Society in India and worldwide) first visited Bodh Gaya in 1891. He was overwhelmed with joy and emotion by the sacredness associated with the Buddha’s life and enlightenment. However, he was deeply pained to see the site’s state of decay. Sitting beside the Vajrasana (Diamond Throne) under the Bodhi Tree, he vowed to restore the landmarks of the birthplace of Buddhism. He was one of the first major figures to play a pivotal role in reviving Buddhism in Bodh Gaya and India during the

  • The Maha Bodhi 1891-1991, Centenary volumn, The Maha Bođhi Society of India, p. 30.

19th and 20th centuries. Building on his foundation, the Maha Bodhi Society has since expanded globally.

On November 11, 1931, the Mulagandhakuti Vihara in Sarnath, built by the Venerable, was inaugurated. Lord Willingdon, the Viceroy of India, and the Director of the Archaeological Survey of India agreed to enshrine the Buddha’s relics at this temple. Additionally, three saplings taken from the Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, were brought back and planted at the Mulagandhakuti Vihara. These three saplings, like children of the same mother tree in Sri Lanka, whose ancestral roots trace back to Bodh Gaya, grew together within a protective enclosure. After more than 50 years, these three trees now share a single concrete base and have grown to look like three branches of a single tree, becoming a sacred site of worship for Buddhists.

Thus, from the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya during the Buddha’s time, a cutting was taken to be planted at the gate of Jetavana Monastery in Sravasti. Then, around the 3rd century BCE, a southern branch of the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya was brought to Sri Lanka. Finally, in the 20th century, three saplings from Sri Lanka were returned to India and planted at Sarnath (Deer Park), the place where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of Dharma, delivering the message of liberation to the five ascetics and all of humanity.

The Bodhi tree planted in the city of Anuradhapura is historically recognized as the oldest living human-planted tree in the world.115

6.6.  THE PRESENT DAY

 
  clip_image047.gif


The current Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya is over 100 years old, healthy, and lush. It is protected by two square stone walls and draped with yellow silk at its base. Pilgrims from all nations gather here to chant, meditate, and offer water and flowers to

  • Symbol and Ritual in Religion with special Reference to Buddhism in Srilanka, D. Jayasekara; The Maha Bodhi Journal, Calcata, 9/1992, p.54.

the Vajrasana (the Diamond Throne), the exact spot where the Buddha sat.

As the historian Cunningham suggested, while the physical tree may have a limited lifespan, its lineage is continuous. Whether it is the 5th or the 20th generation, the tree remains the supreme symbol of the Buddha’s living wisdom.

Written at P.G. Women’s Hostel in Delhi, December 18, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Buddha Gaya Temple: Its History, Dipak Barua, 1981.
  • Informations at a Glance, Buddha Gaya Temple Management Committee, 1998.
  • Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India,
  • Buddhist Records of the Western World, Samuel Beal.
  • The Maha Bodhi Journal, The Maha Boddhi Society of India, Calcata, 9/1992.
  • Dharmadoot, The Maha Boddhi Society of India, Sarnath,

2000.

  • Xứ Phật Tình quê, tập I, Thích Hạnh Nguyện và Vô thức, Đại thừa, 1996.

6.7.  AN OVERVIEW

OF THE CURRENT NĀLANDĀ UNIVERSITY

Nālandā, a Buddhist monastery and internationally renowned center of learning from the 2nd to the 12th century CE, was considered one of India’s premier higher education systems of the ancient and pre-medieval eras. Today, in the 20th and 21st centuries, Buddhism is undergoing a revival in India. Within this cycle of evolution, Nālandā is step-by-step re-establishing its prominence.

In 1951, following India’s independence from British rule and at the suggestion of the late Venerable Jagdish Kashyapa, the Bihar state government collaborated with the Central Ministry of Education to revive this academic tradition. They decided to establish the Nava Nālandā Mahavihara (The New Nālandā University), an institute for Pali and Buddhist research utilizing the most modern scientific methodologies. On November 20, 1951, the foundation stone was laid by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of the Republic of India. The inauguration followed on March 20, 1956. Venerable Jagdish Kashyapa served as its first director and founder.

7.1.  CAMPUS AND LOCATION

Nava Nālandā Mahavihara is located 95 kilometers southeast of Patna, Bihar. It sits across from the peaceful Indra Puskarani lake, roughly one kilometer from the ruins of the ancient Nālandā University. The land for the university was donated by a local Muslim landowner named Zamindar (Islampur).

The university consists of three adjacent campuses:

  • Silabhadra Arama Hostel: A two-story residence for male The upper floor houses 25 monks working on PhD dissertations, while the lower floor houses 25 Master’s students.
  • International Hostel: A single-story residence for approximately 40 monks pursuing Bachelor’s degrees or language It features a central hall where monastics take turns chanting daily. Currently, students hail from Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. (Female monastics and students currently reside in nearby temples, such as the Chinese or Burmese temples, due to the lack of a female dormitory).
  • Academic Building: A two-story structure housing the library, administrative offices, and classrooms capable of holding 50 students

7.2.  ACADEMIC GOALS AND VISION

In his book Nālandā University, Dr. Gopal Sharan Singh outlines the institution’s objectives:

  • Restoration: To develop Nālandā into a residential university modeled after its predecessor, emphasizing Pali and Buddhist Studies.
  • Linguistic Diversity: To teach and research using Tibetan, Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese, Mongolian, and other Asian
  • Modern Library: To maintain a library of Buddhist works in English and ancient languages, alongside modern thought for comparative study.
  • Collaboration: To partner with other universities in Bihar to enhance research and avoid academic duplication.
  • Global Exchange: To send scholars to Buddhist centers worldwide and invite renowned international professors for special
  • Translation and Publication: To edit, translate, and publish

Buddhist manuscripts from various ancient languages into modern ones.

7.3.  PROGRAMS AND STUDENTS

The university offers Master’s (M.A.), M.Phil, PhD, and D.Litt degrees in Buddhist Studies, History, Philosophy, and Pali. Additionally, it provides annual certificate courses in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Hindi, and Japanese.

Professor Dipak Kumar Barua listed graduates from the school’s inception until 1996,116 showing its wide reach:

Country

Number of Graduates

Thailand

140

Laos

67

Myanmar

27

Vietnam

23

Bangladesh

13

Sri Lanka

13

Cambodia

8

Japan

4

USA

2

Germany, Tibet, Nepal, Australia

1 each

Among these alumni are royalty and prominent figures, such as Prince Vongsalong of Laos and Prince Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim. Notably, several eminent Vietnamese monks were trained here, including the Most Venerable Thich Minh Chau, the Most Venerable Huyen Vi, and the Most Venerable Thien Chau.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • ava Nālandā Mahavihara, Annual Report 1997-1998, Bihar, 1998, 15-

16.

7.4.  FUTURE OUTLOOK

While the student population is modest compared to massive institutions like Delhi or Calcutta University, the quality remains high. Currently, around 200 students are enrolled, including four Vietnamese monastics completing their PhDs.

Everything begins with difficulty, but looking at the revival of Nālandā, with the maroon robes of student-monks, the dedication of brilliant professors, and the integration of modern scientific tools, it is clear that religion and science are converging. I believe that in the near future, Nālandā will reclaim its prestige as a “Great Forest” of learning for Buddhism and the world.

May the darkness of illiteracy and the veil of ignorance dissipate, allowing the light of Nālandā to shine across India and the human world.

A rainy morning in Delhi, August 04, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Source:

  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: A Sketch, Dr. Dipar Kumar Barua, Bihar, 1996.
  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: At a Glance, Nālandā,
  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: Annualà Report 1997 - 1998, Bihar,
  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: Prospectus, Nālandā,
  • Nālandā University, Gopalà Sharan Singh, Educationalà Development Institute, Nālandā.

 6.8. NĀLANDĀ IN ANCIENT AND BUDDHIST LITERATURE

If we turn back the heroic pages of Buddhist history from the centuries before the Common Era through the 12th century, we find Nālandā University standing as one of the most famous centers of learning. It was the residence of brilliant scholars such as Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmapala, Silabhadra, and Shantarakshita.

Valuable information about Nālandā is extracted from ancient literary works and Buddhist texts that have survived the ages. Furthermore, the travelogues of international pilgrims like Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing have been indispensable in reconstructing the image of a flourishing Nālandā.

8.1.     NĀLANDĀ IN JAIN LITERATURE

Jain scriptures, such as the KalpaSūtra by Bhadrabahu, refer to Nālandā as a suburb of Rajgir (Rajagriha). It is recorded that Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, spent 14 rainy season retreats (caturmasyas) here.

In works like the Sukratranga, Nālandā is described as a wealthy town even before the Common Era. It was also known as Badgaon, home to sixteen beautiful temples and hundreds of sacred images.

8.2.             NĀLANDĀ IN THE PALI CANON (Buddhist Literature)

Dr. C.S. Upasak notes that Pali literature is rich with references to Nālandā. It was frequently a stopping point for the Buddha and his 500 disciples as they traveled between Rajgir and other regions.

Pavarika’s Mango Grove: The Buddha often stayed in the mango grove belonging to the millionaire Pavarika

(Pavarikambavana).

The Blessed One stayed at Ambalatthika for as long as he deemed fit, then he addressed the Venerable Ananda: ‘Ananda, let us go to Nalanda.’ ‘As you say, Lord,’ the Venerable Ananda replied. Then the Blessed One, together with a large company of monks, proceeded to Nalanda. There, the Blessed One stayed at the Pavarika Mango Grove (Pavarika-ambavana).

During the Blessed One’s stay at the Pavarika Mango Grove in Nalanda, this formal discourse was delivered to the monks:

‘This is Virtue (Sila); this is Concentration (Samadhi); this is Wisdom (Panna). Concentration, when fortified by Virtue, brings great fruit and great benefit. Wisdom, when fortified by Concentration, brings great fruit and great benefit. The mind, when fortified by Wisdom, is fully liberated from the taints (asavas), namely, the taint of sensual desire, the taint of becoming, the taint of wrong views, and the taint of ignorance.’”117

Furthermore, in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (the 16th discourse of the Digha Nikaya), Nalanda is also mentioned. This sutra describes the final days of the Buddha and the testamentary teachings he gave before his passing (Parinirvana).

  • The Brahmajala Sutta: In the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), it is recorded that between Rajgir and Nālandā, the Buddha stayed at the royal park of Ambalatthika. It was here that he preached the Brahmajala Sutta, addressing 62 types of wrong views, and the Ambalatthika-Rahulovada Sutta to his son, 118
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The Kevaddha Sutta: In Nālandā, a young householder
  • Digha Nikaya (The Long Discourses), Discourse No. 16. Translated by Most Venerable Thích Minh Châu. Published by Van Hanh University Press, Saigon, 1972, pages 80-81.
  • Samyutta Nikaya (The Connected Discourses), Volume IV. Translated by Most Venerable Thích Minh Châu, Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies, Ho Chi Minh City, 1993, page

named Kevaddha asked the Buddha to command a monk to perform miracles to inspire faith. The Buddha refused, emphasizing that “the miracle of instruction” (teaching morality, concentration, and wisdom) was far superior to psychic powers.119

  • Upali Sutta: In the Majjhima Nikaya (Middle Length Discourses),120 the Buddha engages in a famous debate at Nālandā with Upali, a prominent disciple of the Jain leader Nigantha Nataputta, leading to Upali’s conversion to

I have heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying near Nāḷandā in Pāvārika’s mango grove. Pāvārika means “blanket-weaver”. Places were often named for their primary economic activity. Probably there was a community of blanket weavers, and the park was owned by their leading merchant.”

“Once, the Blessed One was staying at Nalanda in the Pavarika Mango Grove. Then, the householder Upali approached the Blessed One… Having sat down to one side, the householder Upali said to the Blessed One: ‘Venerable Sir, what is the cause and what is the reason why some beings in this world do not attain complete liberation (Nirvana) in this very life? And Venerable Sir, what is the cause and what is the reason why some beings in this world do attain complete liberation in this very life?’”121

“Thus have I heard: Once the Blessed One was walking along the high road between Rajagaha and Nalanda with a large company of some 500 monks. At that time, the mendicant

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Dīgha Āgama, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Tu Thư Đại Học Vạn Hạnh, 1972. 94.
  • Middle Discourses Upali Sutta https://suttacentral.net/
  • Samyutta Nikaya (The Connected Discourses), Volume IV. Translated by Most Venerable Thích Minh Châu, Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies, Ho Chi Minh City, 1993, page 189.

Suppiya was also traveling along the road between Rajagaha and Nalanda with his young disciple, Brahmadatta.”122

.3. THE BIRTHPLACE OF SARIPUTTA

Buddhist tradition, including the Mahasudassana Jataka, states that Sariputta, the Buddha’s chief disciple foremost in wisdom, was born in a village named Nala (or Nalagrama) near Nālandā. Some texts suggest he also passed into Parinirvana there, adding to the site’s sanctity.

8.4.  ACCOUNTS BY CHINESE PILGRIMS

 

 
  clip_image126.jpg

At the Xuanzang (Hsiuen Tsang) Memorial Hall, Nalanda Complex, on October 4, 1996. From right:

Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Nguyên Hương, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Ven. Đồng Văn, Ven. Bửu Chánh, Ven. Giác Ngôn, Ven. Tâm Đức,

and Ven. Đồng Trí.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • This is the famous opening of the Brahmajala Sutta (The All-Embracing Net of Views). It is significant because it highlights the contrast between the teacher Suppiya (who criticized the Buddha) and his student Brahmadatta (who praised him), leading the Buddha to teach about the “62 views.”

The most detailed descriptions of Nālandā come from the 7th- century Chinese masters:

Xuanzang (Hsiuen Tsang): He stayed at Nālandā for many years, studying Yoga-shastra under the venerable Silabhadra. He reported that the university was surrounded by a brick wall and housed over 10,000 students and 1,510 teachers. He noted that the competition was so fierce that only two or three out of ten applicants passed the entrance exam.

Yijing (I-Tsing): He stayed at Nālandā for ten years and provided meticulous details on the monastic rules, daily schedules, and the curriculum, which included the Vedas, Logic (Hetuvidya), Grammar (Sabdavidya), Medicine (Chikitsavidya), and Metaphysics.

8.5.   INFLUENCE ON TIBET AND BEYOND

Nālandā was the primary source for the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. Great scholars like Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava traveled from Nālandā to the “Land of Snows,” carrying with them the vast philosophical traditions of the university. Many of Nālandā’s lost Sanskrit texts were preserved and translated into the Tibetan Kangyur and Tengyur.

Conclusion

From Buddhist and Jain scriptures to the records of Chinese pilgrims, it is clear that Nālandā was a thriving town from the Buddha’s time. By the 5th to 7th centuries CE, it had evolved into the most prestigious university in the world, renowned not only for its towering libraries but also for the “miracle of instruction” that attracted scholars from China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, Tibet, and Sri Lanka.

The summer sun of Delhi, June 18, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.9. THE GOLDEN AGE OF NĀLANDĀ UNIVERSITY

When discussing the brilliant achievements and sophisticated education systems at the dawn of human history, Nālandā University stands as a peerless example. Often referred to as a “Mother University,” it was the first elite international university in India, serving as a model for institutional learning.123

The name “ Nālandā” existed long before the university’s formal establishment (spanning the 2nd to 12th centuries CE). In the time of Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE), Buddhist literature notes that the Buddha stayed in Pavarika’s mango grove in Nālandā, describing it as a prosperous and prestigious town.

“The Buddha was staying at Nalanda in Pavarika’s mango grove...”124

At the time of the Buddha, Nalanda was a smaller village near Rajgir. It later became the site of the world-famous Buddhist university.

Nālandā was also the home of the Buddha’s two chief disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana. Sariputta, in particular, spent much of his life spreading the Dharma there and eventually entered Parinirvana in his birthplace.

9.1.  THE FOUNDATIONS OF A COLOSSUS

The exact date of the university’s founding remains a subject of historical debate. The historian Taranatha suggests that King Ashoka (3rd century BCE) built a stupa for Sariputta at Nālandā, marking him as a potential founder. Others argue the university began in the 1st or 2nd century CE, as the legendary philosopher

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • The University of Nalanda, D. Sankalia, Delhi-6, 1972, p. 274.
  • Digha Nikaya / Long Discourses of the Buddha, Kevaddahasutta, 11. Vietnameese translate by Thích Minh Châu, Tu Thư Vạn Hạnh, Sài Gòn, 1967.

Nagarjuna served as its abbot and teacher during that time.125 However, most archaeological evidence, including seals, copper plates, and statues, points to the Gupta Dynasty (5th century CE) as the era when Nālandā reached its monumental architectural form.

By the time the Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang (629–645 CE) and Yijing (675–685 CE) arrived, Nālandā had become a vast monastic city. Xuanzang recorded a staggering population of 10,000 students and 1,510 professors, with nearly a hundred Dharma lectures delivered daily.

9.2.  RIGOROUS ACADEMIC STANDARDS

Nālandā was famous for its exceptionally high entrance standards. Students of all backgrounds, Brahmin, Buddhist, or otherwise, could apply, but the “Gatekeepers” (learned monks who guarded the entrances) subjected candidates to such intense interrogation that only two or three out of ten were admitted.

The curriculum was remarkably broad, covering both “old” and “new” works:

The “Old” Works: The Vedas,126 Upanishads127, Samkhya

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Nava Nalanda Mahavihara: A Sketch, Prof. Dr. Dipak Kuma Barua, 1996, Patna, p. 4; Nalanda University “An Academic colossus of its time”, Rakesh Kumar Singh, Delhi University, 1986, p.36.
  • The word Veda literally means “Knowledge” or “True Wisdom” (Trí chân thật). These are the oldest scriptures of Hinduism/Brahmanism.
  • Upaniṣad (Ưu-ba-ni-sa-đà): Known as Áo Nghĩa Thư (The Secret/Hidden Teachings). Etymology: Literally “sitting down near” a teacher to receive esoteric Era: Mostly composed between 800 BCE and 500 BCE (roughly the 8th to 6th centuries BCE). Philosophy: They represent the “Vedanta” (end of the Vedas), shifting focus from external rituals to internal meditation and the relationship between Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the ultimate reality).

philosophy128, Vaisheshika129, and Nyaya (logic)130.

  • The “New” Works: Mahayana and Theravada scriptures, and the philosophies of the 18 Buddhist
  • Specialized Subjects: Grammar, Medicine (Chikitsavidya), Astronomy, Music, and

9.3.  THE GREAT MASTERS OF NĀLANDĀ

The prestige of Nālandā was built upon its world-renowned faculty. To be a professor, one had to be a master of dozens of scriptures. The lineage of masters includes:

 
  clip_image047.gif


Nagarjuna: The founder of the Middle Way (Madhyamaka) school.131

  • Sāmkhyā is one of the six orthodox (Astika) schools of Hindu Dualism (Nhị nguyên luận): It posits that the universe consists of two eternal realities:

Purusha: Pure consciousness (the self). Prakriti: Matter/Nature.

Evolution: It explains the world through the interaction of these two and the three Gunas (qualities: Sattva, Rajas, Tamas).

Relationship to Buddhism: Sāmkhyā was highly influential during the Buddha’s time. Tradition holds that one of the Buddha’s early teachers, Alara Kalama, practiced a form of Sāmkhyā philosophy.

  • Vaiśeṣika (S): Thắng Luận Phái (Vaisheshika School)

Also known as: Vệ-thế-sư phái, Tối Thắng học phái (The Most Distinguished School), Đa nguyên thực tại luận phái (Pluralistic Realism), Phệ-thế-sử-ca phái. One of the six orthodox schools (astika) of Indian philosophy, emerging around the 1st century. It utilizes six fundamental principles (categories) to explain all phenomena: substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence. The founder is Sage Kaṇāda (Kiệt-na-đà), and the foundational text is the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra (Kinh Thắng Luận).

  • Nyāya (S): Chánh lý luận (Nyaya School / Logic)

A Brahmanical school founded around the 7th century (though its roots in the Nyāya Sūtras date back to the 2nd century BCE).

One of the four aspects (characteristics) of the Path Truth (Marga-satya): The Path (Đạo), the Right Method (Như), the Practice (Hành), and the Breakthrough/ Escape (Xuất).

  • Nāgārjuna (S): Long Thọ Bồ-tát

Biography: The 14th Patriarch in the lineage of 28 Indian Buddhist Patriarchs. Born in South India (approx. 150–250 CE). Tradition holds that through the

Āryadeva (S): Đề Bà / Thánh Thiên Bồ-tát132, Author of the Catuhsataka (Four Hundred Verses

  • Asanga and Vasubandhu: Brothers who founded the

Yogacara (Consciousness-Only) school. 133

  • Dignaga: The founder of Buddhist 134
 
  clip_image060.gif

  • Dharmapala and Silabhadra:   Silabhadra    was    the centenarian abbot who taught 135

blessings of Mahavairocana Buddha, he opened an iron stupa, entered within to pay homage to Vajrasattva, and received the Great Sutras (Mahayana scriptures). Works: Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā (Middle Way Treatise), Dvādaśamukha Śāstra (Twelve Gate Treatise), and numerous commentaries. He passed the lineage to his disciple Āryadeva (Kanadeva).

  • Āryadeva (S): Đề Bà / Thánh Thiên Bồ-tát

Biography: A 3rd-century scholar and the primary disciple of Nāgārjuna. Works: Author of the Catuhsataka (Four Hundred Verses). He is considered a co-founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school.

  • Asaṅga (S): Vô Trước Bồ-tát

Other Names: Thokmay (T), A-tăng-khư.

Biography: Born into a Brahmin family in North India (4th century). He was the elder brother of Vasubandhu. Initially a follower of the Mahisasaka school, he later converted his brother Vasubandhu to Mahayana. He is said to have ascended to Tushita Heaven to receive teachings directly from Maitreya Bodhisattva.

Legacy: Founder of the Yogacara (Conscious-only) school. He composed the “Five Treatises of Maitreya.”

Vasubandhu: the younger brother of Asaṅga.

Biography: A 4th-century philosopher and the 21st Patriarch of Indian Buddhism. Born in Peshawar, North India. He

Works: Initially a master of the Sarvastivada school, he wrote the famous Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya (Câu-xá luận). After his conversion to Mahayana by his brother, he became a pillar of the Yogacara school.

  • Dignāga is arguably the most influential Buddhist logician in history. He is recognized as the founder of Buddhist Logic (Pramāṇa) and the “New Logic” movement, which shifted Buddhist philosophy from metaphysical speculation toward epistemology (the study of how we know what we know).
  • Dharmapāla (S): Hộ Pháp

A 6th–7th century master and abbot of Nalanda University. He was the teacher of Śīlabhadra. He passed away at the young age of 32 (approx. 560 CE).

Śīlabhadra (S): Giới Hiền Luận Sư

An Indian monk and abbot of Nalanda in the 7th century. When the Chinese monk Xuanzang (Đường Huyền Trang) arrived in India, Śīlabhadra was 106

  • Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava: Masters who later brought the Nālandā tradition to 136
  • Candragomin (S): Master of the Yogacara tradition and a rival/debater of Candrakīrti.137

9.4.A CENTER OF GLOBAL DIPLOMACY

Nālandā’s brilliance acted as a diamond, attracting seekers from across the known world. Students traveled from China, Korea, Japan,138 Mongolia,139 Tibet, Tukhara140, Tibet and Sri Lanka141. In turn, Nālandā sent envoys to these nations, creating a sophisticated network of cultural and spiritual exchange.142

 
  clip_image060.gif


The university enjoyed immense royal patronage. The Gupta and Pala emperors, along with King Harsha, provided for the students’ four essential needs (food, clothing, shelter, and medicine), allowing scholars to focus entirely on their studies. Xuanzang noted that the university featured eight grand halls and 300 rooms, set amidst beautiful landscapes of red and white

years old. He transmitted the Yogacara teachings of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu to Xuanzang.

  • Śāntarakṣita (S): Tịnh Hộ (700–760 CE)

An 8th-century scholar who traveled to Tibet with Padmasambhava. He founded the Yogacara-Svatantrika-Madhyamaka synthesis and authored the Tattvasaṃgraha (Compendium of Truth).

Kamalaśīla (S): Liên Hoa Giới

An 8th-century disciple of Śāntarakṣita. He is famous for defeating the Chinese monk Hashang Mahayana in the Great Debate at Samye Monastery in Tibet. He authored the Bhāvanākrama (Stages of Meditation).

  • Candragomin (S): Nguyệt Quang

A 7th-century lay scholar and poet from Bengal. He was a master of the Yogacara tradition and a rival/debater of Candrakīrti. He authored works on grammar, logic, and the Bodhisattva-saṃvara-viṃśaka (Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vows).

  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol XIII, S., p.556.
  • A Record of Buddhist Religion, I Tsing, translated by Takakusu, 1896, p.26.
  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol XIII,V.S., p.
  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol XIII,V.S., t563-4.
  • Indian Teachers of Buddhist University, Phanindranath, Maras 1923, 37.

lotus ponds.

9.5.LEGACY

Nālandā remained the peak of human knowledge for nearly a millennium before its destruction in the late 12th century. It left an indelible mark on history as a model of the residential university. As H.D. Sankalia noted, Nālandā was truly the “Academic Colossus of its time.”

Late summer in Delhi, July 27, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.10.THE BUDDHA’S MESSAGE ON EDUCATION

Education is one of the most vital factors in eradicating ignorance and prejudice, the root causes of conflict. These conflicts exist within the individual, between individuals, and between the individual and their environment or society. On a broader scale, they manifest as clashes between groups, religions, or nations. Ultimately, these are all human contradictions. Therefore, the prerequisite for resolving these conflicts and achieving inner peace and liberation is the necessity of self-knowledge.

After five years of searching for teachers and six long years of asceticism, Shakyamuni Buddha sat beneath the Bodhi tree and realized the Middle Way, also known as the Principle of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda). By lifting this veil, He awakened humanity from the dream of craving and attachment, showing that we are the masters of our own karma and the heirs to its consequences.

10.1.  THE MECHANICS OF THE SELF

The Buddha mapped out the twelve links of Dependent Origination:

From Ignorance arises Volitional Action.

From Action arises Consciousness… and so forth, leading to

Birth, Old Age, Death, Sorrow, and Despair.

Just as we create the conditions for our own suffering, we alone possess the power to dismantle them. When ignorance is extinguished, the entire chain of suffering collapses. This profound formula is summarized as:

“When this is, that is; From the arising of this, that arises. When this is not, that is not; From the cessation of this, that ceases.”143

The Buddha uses this formula during a famous debate with the philosopher Saccaka to demonstrate how the “Self” cannot be found in the five aggregates, as they are all subject to this law of cause and effect.

10.2.  MAN AS HIS OWN MASTER

This Truth of Dependent Origination was a revolutionary voice in the history of religion and philosophy. It shattered the traditional Brahmin prejudices of the time, which held that humans were mere creations of a Supreme Deity or Brahma, subject to the rewards and punishments of supernatural forces.

The Buddha consistently denied being a god or a supernatural being. He was a historical person, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya, who was moved by the universal suffering of birth, old age, sickness, and death. His motivation was Compassion (Karuna): to provide ultimate joy and rescue others from perpetual pain.

He emphasized that He was merely a “way-shower.” In His final teachings at Kushinagar, He urged:

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Paccaya Sutta (SN 20), Bahudhātuka Sutta (MN 115), Cūḷasaccaka Sutta (MN 35)

Gems of Buddhism Wisdom, The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, Taiwan, 1996, p.42.

“Be a lamp unto yourselves.

Seek no refuge outside of yourselves.

Hold fast to the Truth (Dharma) as a lamp.”144

10.3.  THE    EDUCATIONAL   PHILOSOPHY    OF    THE BUDDHA

The Buddha’s message is a holistic educational system based on

Compassion and Wisdom. It is characterized by:

  • Self-Reliance: The Buddha encouraged a spirit of One must be “an island unto oneself,” because only the individual truly understands their own mind.
  • Scientific Inquiry: His “Education” is not based on dogma or blind faith. It is an awakening of the mind to understand the psychological and physical laws governing our lives.
  • Moral Responsibility: By recognizing ourselves as the “owners of our karma,” we take full responsibility for our thoughts and actions, leading to a more harmonious relationship with society and the environment.
  • The Role of the Teacher: The Buddha acted as a guide, not a As the Dhammapada states: “You yourself must make the effort; the Buddhas only point the way.”145

 

 

10.4.CONCLUSION

The Buddha’s educational message, “Be your own refuge,” “You are the master of your karma,” “Light your own torch,” is a proactive, creative, and democratic attitude. It possesses the power to resolve the internal and external conflicts of humanity.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Digha Nikaya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta. Cunda (SN 47.13), Ukkacela (SN 47.14).
  • Digha Nikaya, Du Hành Kinh (Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, 16).

This is the “Green Letter,” an unprecedented educational message sent across twenty-five centuries, yet still vibrantly applicable to our new millennium in the Spring of 2001.

P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi, December 24, 2000. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

6.11.         BUDDHISM IN ASIA

AND EUROPE IN THE 20TH CENTURY

On the occasion of the celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, I am honored to present a few highlights regarding the development of Buddhism across Asia and Europe during the 20th century. This century has seen Buddhism emerge from a period of local stagnation to become a global force for peace and spiritual clarity.

Part I: BUDDHISM IN ASIA IN THE 20TH CENTURY

While King Ashoka first sent the message of the Buddha beyond India’s borders in the 3rd century BCE, the 20th century marked a “second wave” of revival.

1.  The Revival in India

After being forgotten in its homeland for nearly 800 years, Buddhism was reintroduced to India at the end of the 19th century by Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka. Significant 20th-century milestones146 include:

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: The architect of the Indian Constitution converted to Buddhism in 1956, leading nearly 5 million “Dalits” to the faith.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • The Maha Bodhi, March 1895, 25.

Reclaiming Holy Sites: The establishment of the Maha Bodhi Society helped restore the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya and other sacred sites like Sārnāth and Kushinagar.

2.  War, Crisis, and Devotion

Despite two World Wars and political upheavals in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar, the grassroots devotion to the Buddha remained unshaken.147

The Rise of New Sects: In Japan and Taiwan, hundreds of new Mahayana sects emerged, focusing on social welfare and modern education.

Tibetan Diaspora: Following political shifts in Tibet, His Holiness the Dalai Lama and thousands of monastics settled in India and the West, effectively spreading the Vajrayana tradition globally.

3.  Buddhism in Vietnam

In Vietnam, the Buddhist community has flourished remarkably. By the end of 1999, the statistics148 showed:

Monastics: 31,845 (Northern, Southern, and Mendicant traditions).

Temples: 14,554 nationwide.

Education: 3 Buddhist Academies (Hanoi, Hue, Ho Chi Minh City) and 28 Basic Buddhist Schools, allowing monastics to pursue both religious and secular education.

Buddhism in Sri Lanka

 
  clip_image047.gif


Since the lineage of Theravada nuns had been considered broken for nearly a millennium (disappearing around the 11th century in Sri Lanka), its re-establishment was a major legal and social

  • Arthur Machinery, Mahayana Buddhism in The West, 1993.
  • Final Report on Buddhist Affairs for 1999, Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, January 03 2000, p. 4-22.

breakthrough in the Buddhist world.149

Key Details of the Revival

The 1996 Sarnath Ordination: The movement gained significant momentum in 1996 when a group of Sri Lankan women was ordained in Sarnath, India. This was made possible with the assistance of Korean masters, as the Korean lineage had preserved the full ordination for women originally brought from Sri Lanka in the 5th century.

The 1998 Bodh Gaya Ordination: Another landmark event occurred in 1998 in Bodh Gaya, where women from various countries (including Sri Lanka and Western nations) received the Upasampada (Full Ordination). This ceremony was organized by the Fo Guang Shan order of Taiwan, acting as a bridge between the Mahayana and Theravada traditions.

The Role of Scholars: Bhikkhu Bodhi and the late Ayya Khema played critical roles in providing the scriptural and logical justifications for this revival, arguing that the Buddha’s original intent was for a four-fold assembly (Monks, Nuns, Laymen, Laywomen).

Part II: BUDDHISM IN THE WEST IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Historian Arnold Toynbee remarked that the meeting of Buddhism and the West was the most significant event of the 20th century.150

1.  Intellectual Awakening

Initially, Buddhism reached the West through literature.

Sir Edwin Arnold: His poem “The Light of Asia” (1879) inspired millions.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Hindustan Times, Patna, March 17th, 1997, 6.
  • International Buddhist Conference, Delhi,

Pali Text Society: Founded by T.W. Rhys Davids in 1881, this society systematically translated the Pali Canon into English.

Philosophy: Great thinkers like Schopenhauer and scientists like Albert Einstein expressed deep admiration for Buddhism’s rational, non-dogmatic nature. Einstein famously noted that if there were a religion that could satisfy modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.

2.  The Role of Meditation

In a Western society often exhausted by materialism and consumerism, Meditation became the “bridge.” Westerners turned to Zen (Japan), Vipassana (Southeast Asia), and Tibetan meditation to find emotional balance and spiritual meaning.

3.  Secularization and Lay Leadership

Buddhism in the West is unique because it is largely a movement of lay practitioners. These followers apply Buddhist ethics to modern problems like environmentalism, social justice, and mental health, creating a “New Turning of the Wheel of Dharma.”

4.  Digital Propagation

By the end of the 20th century, the internet revolutionized Dharma sharing. Websites, online Sūtras, and digital lectures have made the Buddha’s words available instantly across all continents.

CONCLUSION

Buddhism is no longer a purely “Eastern” religion. Through a process of globalization, it has moved westward, gaining fresh vitality. This encounter between the ancient wisdom of the East and the scientific, democratic spirit of the West provides a powerful tool for peace in the 21st century.

A misty morning at

P.G. Women’s Hostel in Delhi, Year 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • The Development of Buddhism in England, Christmas Humphreys,
  • The Influence of Buddhist Philosophy in East and West, Dr. Helmuth Von
  • Mahayana Buddhism in The West, Dr. Arthur Machinery,
  • 1999 Buddhist Affairs Report, Vietnam Buddhist Sangha. hunger for Eastern spirituality. As someone who traveled from the academic halls of India back to the community leadership in California?

 6.12.         REFLECTIONS ON GLOBAL PEACE

The International Peace Summit: Towards a Culture of Harmony and Peace for Humanity, held from December 7–10, 2003, was organized by the Delhi Peace Committee (DPC) in collaboration with the Council for a Parliament of the World’s Religions (CPWR). This four-day summit gathered political figures, religious leaders, intellectuals, and social activists from India and abroad to reaffirm spiritual values and raise a unified voice against intolerance, prejudice, violence, and injustice.

In his opening address, the President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, stated:

“I am delighted that the Delhi Peace Committee is organizing an International Summit. I hope this will be a wonderful opportunity for participants to discuss ways to sustain and promote peace and well-being through the harmonious bond of global religions.”

12.1.A STRATEGY FOR GLOBAL HARMONY

Building a culture of peace requires more than just dialogue; it requires a global strategy. In a world still reeling from the conflicts of the 20th century and facing new challenges like poverty, illiteracy, and inequality, peace often remains elusive. To overcome these barriers, we must strengthen cooperation based on universal justice, inter-religious friendship, and equal opportunity for all.

Today’s world is threatened by terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and chemical weapons. This escalation of destructive power proves that we urgently need leaders who act as messengers of reconciliation rather than echoes of vengeance or ego.

12.2.  THE “SPIRINOMICS” CONCEPT

For the first time in history, we have a truly global economy that influences all civilizations. Future prosperity depends on global stability. Therefore, we must recognize the role of economics within human culture. The concept of “Spirinomics” (Spirituality + Economics) can help businesses understand that religious values and ethical conduct are essential to the peace process.

12.3.  KEY PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE PEACE

Unity in Diversity: Global diversity is a vibrant creation that must be protected. We are all members of one common spiritual family. Our freedom should be used to build others up, not to tear them down.

Individual Awareness: Peace begins with the individual. When

each person recognizes the human rights and well-being of others, global peace becomes a tangible reality.

Partnership of Science and Religion: These are the two most influential fields of human endeavor. A scientific approach to traditional religious values, combined with moral guidance for scientific progress, will accelerate the peace process.

Inclusive Voices: There is an urgent need for a youth forum, the next generation of leaders, and for the voices of women and marginalized communities to be heard.

  • CONCLUSION: PEACE AS A HABIT OF MIND

As we welcomed the Spring of the Year of the Monkey (2004), it served as a launchpad for nurturing sustainable peace. Peace and tranquility are the essential nutrients for civilization, especially when the future of humanity is at stake. Non-violence is the core strength of this peace. We must cultivate these values as a “habit of mind,” practicing them in our daily lives until they become the foundation of our collective human experience.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Towards a Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor: T.D. Singh, 7–10 December 2003, New Delhi.
  • Unity in Diversity (Thoughts of the World’s Great Religions),

O.P. Ghai, Foreword by Dr. Karan Singh, Sterling Publishers PVT. LTD, 2003, New Delhi-3.

 6.13.THE PURE LOTUS

The lotus is a flower of profound purity and one of the oldest traditions in the East. An aquatic plant native to Asia, it occupies

an ancient and revered position in cultural history, particularly within Buddhism.151

Known as “Lotus” (pundarika, lien-hua, renge), it is often regarded as the most beautiful flower in the world. Its unique distinction lies in its habitat: though it grows in murky marshes, its blossoms and fragrance remain pristine, untainted by the mud and stagnant water. As the Vietnamese folk poem beautifully captures:

Lotus Blossom Envo

“In the pond, what is as beautiful as the lotus? Green leaves, white petals, and yellow stamens.

Yellow stamens, white petals, green leaves, Close to the mud, yet it does not smell of mud.” (Mạc Đỉnh Chi) 152

13.1.                          BIOLOGICAL            AND             SYMBOLIC CHARACTERISTICS

Scientifically classified as Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn, the lotus is found in ponds and lakes throughout Asia.153 Beyond its aesthetic appeal, the lotus is a symbol of perfection amidst an impure world due to five unique qualities:

  1. Simultaneity of Cause and Effect: The flower and the seed pod (the “mirror”) appear at the same
  2. Purity: It grows in the mud yet remains clean and fragrant.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Independence: Each flower stalk rises independently from the base, not sharing a common branch or leaf.
  • Nikkyo Niwano, Buddhism for Today, Tokyo, 1990, 24.
  • Mạc Đỉnh Chi: Trong đầm gì đẹp bằng sen Lá xanh bông trắng lại chen nhị vàng Nhị vàng bông trắng lá xanh Gần bùn mà chẳng hôi tanh mùi bùn.
  • O.Smith, The Lotus – A Buddhist Flower, The Maha Bodhi, Vol. 106, Calcuta, 2000, p. 48-49.
  1. Untouched by Lust: Bees and butterflies do not swarm or nest upon it.
  2. Simplicity: Unlike other flowers used for adornment (such as the ancient Indian custom of wearing floral garlands), the lotus stands in its natural dignity.154

The lotus only blooms after rising above the water’s surface. This symbolizes Buddha-nature in every human: enlightenment and liberation cannot be found by escaping humanity or the world, but by rising above the “mud” of worldly defilements while remaining rooted within it.

13.2. THE LOTUS IN BUDDHIST TRADITION

In Buddhist lore, when Queen Maya gave birth in the Lumbini garden, the infant Prince Siddhartha took seven steps, and a lotus flower bloomed beneath each footstep. Consequently, in Buddhist art and sculpture, the Buddha is almost always depicted standing or sitting upon a Lotus Throne (Padmasana).

In the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha illustrates the quality of a realized being through the lotus:

“Just as a lotus flower… grows in the water, rises above the water, and stands unsoiled by the water; even so, the Tathagata… lives in the world, having conquered the world, and remains unsoiled by the world.”155

This symbolism also appears in the famous story of “Picking the Flower and Smiling” (Niem hoa vi tieu). When the Buddha held up a flower before the assembly, only Mahakasyapa understood and smiled. The Buddha then transmitted the “Treasury of the True Dharma Eye” to him, ensuring the lineage

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Lotus Sutra, Vietnamese trans. Thich Tri Tinh, Phật học viện Quốc Tế, USA, 1997, p. 103.
  • Buddhavamsa (Chronicle of Buddhas) and the Anguttara Nikaya, where the Buddha explicitly uses this imagery to define the nature of an Enlightened

of enlightenment would continue to water the “lotus-nature” of all sentient beings.

13.3. CULTURAL AND PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE

The lotus is a vital part of daily life across Asia156:

  • In Vietnam, it is considered a national symbol, representing the soul of the The name “Lien” (Lotus) is a popular name for women, and Buddhist monastics often take Dharma names like Lien-Hieu or Lien-Hoa.
  • Culinary and Medicinal, every part of the lotus is useful. Lotus stems are used in salads; roots provide nutritious starch for children and the sick; the “plumule” (lotus heart) is a renowned sedative used to lower blood pressure; and the seeds are a delicacy in desserts and traditional medicines.
  • In India, known as the Water Lily, it is the national flower and a symbol of quiet beauty and purity.
  • In Thailand, the “Loy Krathong” festival involves floating lotus-shaped boats with candles and incense on the rivers to thank the Water
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • O.Smith, The Lotus – A Buddhist Flower,The Maha Bodhi, Vol. 106, Calcuta, 2000, p. 48-49.

clip_image128.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (third from left)

and Indian friends in 1995.

 

13.4.   CONCLUSION

Today, many varieties of lotuses exist, from pure white and pink to rare blue-tinged blossoms. Some double-petaled varieties can have up to 2,000 petals in a single bloom. Regardless of its variety, the lotus remains the ultimate symbol of purity and peace.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Reference:

  • Buddhism for Today, Nikkyo Niwano, Tokyo,
  • The Lotus – A Buddhist Flower, O. Smith, 2000.

6.14. MEDITATIONS ON THE DAY OF THE BUDDHA’S ENLIGHTENMENT

The founder of Buddhism is Shakyamuni Buddha, the Awakened One, who liberated himself from the web of craving and ignorance to see the nature of all things as they truly are. Born Siddhartha Gautama over 2,500 years ago in what is now Nepal, he was a prince who renounced a life of luxury at age 29 to seek a solution to human suffering.

14.1.  THE PATH OF EXTREME HARDSHIP

Gautama wandered the Ganges valley for years, practicing under renowned teachers and pushing his body to the absolute limits of asceticism. The Majjhima Nikaya describes his efforts with harrowing detail:

“Then, Aggivessana, I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose, and ears. As I did so, violent winds carved through my head. Just as if a strong man were splitting my head open with a sharp sword, so too did these violent winds carve through my head. Although my energy was unflagging and my mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and uncalm because I was exhausted by that painful striving. Yet, Aggivessana, such painful feelings that arose did not obsess my mind.”157

He practiced breath retention until the air felt like a sword piercing his skull, and he fasted until his body became skeletal. He remarked that when he touched his belly, he could feel his spine; his eyes sank deep into their sockets like water at the bottom of a deep well, and his skin withered like a bitter gourd in the hot wind.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vietnamese Tripitaka, Mahāsaccaka Sutta, vol. 2, Viện Nghiên Cứu Phật Học Việt Nam, 1992.

After six years, he realized that these torturous methods did not lead to supreme wisdom. He recalled a childhood memory of meditating under a rose-apple tree, a state of peaceful joy. He realized that the body must be nourished to support the mind, much like the strings of a lute: if they are too tight, they snap; if too loose, they will not play. This was the birth of the Middle Way.

14.2.  THE NIGHT OF ENLIGHTENMENT

He accepted a bowl of milk rice from the village girl Sujata158 and sat beneath the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, vowing not to rise until he achieved enlightenment. During the 49th night, he ascended through the four stages of meditative absorption (Dhyana):

First Watch of the Night: He achieved Recollection of Past Lives (Pubbenivasanussati-ñana), seeing his own infinite cycle of rebirths.

Second Watch: He achieved the Divine Eye (Dibbacakkhu), seeing the death and rebirth of all sentient beings according to their karma.

Third Watch: He achieved the Extinction of Defilements (Asavakkhaya-ñana). Ignorance vanished, and light arose. He declared: “Birth is exhausted, the holy life has been lived, what was to be done is done, there is no more returning to this state.”

At age 35, he became the Buddha, the “Teacher of Gods and

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Origin: A village girl from the village of Senāni (or Nala) in the region of Uruvelā (Ưu-lâu-tần-loa), modern-day Bodh Gaya.

The Offering: She offered the Buddha a golden bowl of Kheer (milk rice–thức ăn làm bằng sữa, bột và mật ong) while he was emaciated from six years of extreme asceticism.

The Turning Point: This nourishment provided the physical strength required for his final meditation. Following this meal, the Buddha bathed in the Nerañjarā River and sat under the Bodhi tree, vowing not to rise until he achieved enlightenment.

Men.”159

14.3.  THE ESSENCE OF HIS TEACHING

Whether celebrated on the 8th day of the 12th lunar month (Mahayana tradition) or the full moon of Vesak (Theravada tradition), the message of his enlightenment remains the same: Emancipation through Self-Reliance.

The Buddha consistently identified himself as a human being. He taught that enlightenment is not a gift from a deity but a result of human effort and wisdom. His first sermon at Sārnāth, the Four Noble Truths, serves as the core of his 45-year mission. He opened his path to all, rejecting the rigid caste system of ancient India and championing freedom of thought.

14.4.A MESSAGE FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM

As we celebrated the Enlightenment at the dawn of the year 2001, pilgrims from across the globe gathered at the Bodhi tree. They came not just to worship a historical figure, but to pray for a society free from poverty, ignorance, and conflict.

The Buddha’s light is unique: the sun shines by day, the moon by night, but the radiance of the Buddha’s wisdom shines constantly, day and night, over the entire world. His compassion was not a fleeting emotion but a driving force to transform hatred into love and cruelty into kindness.

14.5.PRAYER FOR THE MORNING STAR

The night is long with shimmering stars, Like eyes watching through infinite eons, Waiting for dawn…

On the eastern horizon,

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Narada Maha Thera, The Buddha and his teaching, Singapo Buddhist Meditation Centre, 1973, pp.12-20.

the Morning Star appears,

A radiant light floods this world.

Not like the sun, which illuminates only half the time, Not like a flower, which blooms and fades,

But the smile of Gautama from boundless wisdom, A night of peace for three thousand worlds.

Enlightenment Day, BE 2544 (January 1, 2001)

Bodh Gaya, India.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

CITED WORK:

  1. Dhammapada (Kinh Pháp Cú), Thích Trí Đức, Ấn độ,
  2. The Buddha and His Teachings, Narada Maha Thera, Singapo Buddhist Meditation Centre, 1973.
  3. basic Buddhist Studies (Phật học Phổ thông), Thích Thiện Hoa, khóa I & II, THPGTP HCM, 1989.
  4. What the Buddha Taught (Con đường thoát khổ), Rahula, TN. Trí Hải (dịch), Đại học Vạn Hạnh, 1966.
  5. Xứ Phật Tình Quê, Thích Hạnh Nguyện & Vô Thức, Đại thừa xuất bản, tập I, 1996.

6.15. CELEBRATION OF THE BUDDHA’S ENLIGHTENMENT AND SYMPOSIUM

IN BODH GAYA

On the afternoon of December 28, 2000, Indira Gandhi International Airport in New Delhi was a scene of vibrant joy. Vietnamese student-monks and nuns gathered with bouquets of flowers and bright smiles to welcome a major pilgrimage delegation from Vietnam. Led by Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang (Head of the Central Propagation Board of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha and Editor-in-Chief of Giac Ngo Newspaper), the group of 65 was joined by Venerable Giác Toàn, Venerable Tịnh Diệu, and several senior Abbesses.

After a touching reunion in Delhi, the groups traveled to Bodh Gaya. The student-monks from Delhi braved a 15-hour train journey with supplies for 200 people, including tofu and noodles, ensuring everyone would be fed during the sacred event.

15.1.A SOLEMN REMEMBRANCE

Upon arriving in Bodh Gaya, the group received the somber news of the passing of Most Venerable Thich Thanh Kiem, Abbot of Vinh Nghiem Temple in Ho Chi Minh City. On January 1, 2001, a formal memorial service was held at the Vietnam Buddha Quoc Tu (Vietnam Temple in Bodh Gaya).

During the service, Venerable Tri Quang offered words of wisdom to the young monks and nuns studying in India:

“The great Elders are passing away one by one. I will eventually follow. Therefore, you must study well and return soon to rejuvenate the leadership of our Sangha.”

He emphasized the need to simplify rituals for a modern society, noting that his “Dharma Flower” (Phap Hoa) retreats in Vietnam succeeded because they were concise (30 minutes) and

accessible to both intellectuals and ordinary people.

 
  clip_image130.jpg

Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang give lecturer for Vietnamese monastcis student at the Wellcome Party, Buddhist studies, University of Delhi, 2000.

 

15.2.  THE SYMPOSIUM: NATURE & PATH OF ENLIGHTENMENT

Following the memorial, a symposium titled “The Nature and Path of Enlightenment and Contemporary Issues” was held. The symposium featured 66 research papers compiled into a 400-page volume. Notable presentations included:

  • Venerable Thich Nhat Tu: Discussed the concept of “Mara” (the Tempter) as a metaphor for death and afflictions rather than a celestial demon.
  • Venerable Gioi Huong: Presented on “Buddhism in Asia and Europe in the 20th Century,” suggesting that the spiritual hunger in the West makes it a prime location for a Buddhist
  • Venerable Le Tho: Advocated for the “Vietnamization” of

liturgy and the radical use of the internet and websites to spread the Dharma globally in the 3rd millennium.

15.3.  THE GRAND CEREMONY AT THE BODHI TREE

The main celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment (Buddhist Era 2544) took place on the morning of January 2, 2001. For the first time, a large blue banner with white Vietnamese lettering hung proudly at the gates of the Mahabodhi Temple:

“Kính Mừng Đại Lễ Phật Thành Đạo – Celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment Day”

Over 50 international monastics from Thailand, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and beyond joined the Vietnamese delegation under the sacred Bodhi tree.

The atmosphere was electric with devotion. The group performed a ritual of wrapping three bright yellow robes around the trunk of the Bodhi tree. At the suggestion of Venerable Huyen Dieu, all participants touched their foreheads to the tree and then held hands, forming a massive human circle around the Great Stupa. This “living mandala” of different races and nationalities symbolized a unified commitment to bringing the Buddha’s message of peace to the world.

15.4.  CONCLUSION OF THE JOURNEY

As the ceremonies ended, the pilgrims prepared to return. Most Venerable Tri Quang and his group departed for Calcutta and then Bangkok, while others stayed to visit further holy sites. The student-monks returned to Delhi, their luggage now filled with souvenirs and the spiritual “baggage” of renewed motivation.

Delhi, January 08, 2001

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

 

6.16. THE SEVENTH SAKYADHITA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE IN TAIWAN

The Seventh Sakyadhita Conference (“Daughters of the Buddha”) was held in July 2002 at Huafan University in Taiwan. Perched atop a mountain an hour from Taipei, the conference gathered 326 members, 200 monastics, and 126 laywomen, from 27 countries.

 
  clip_image132.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Minh Huệ and Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương at Seventh Sakyadhita Conference, Huafan University, Taiwan, July 2002.

 

16.1.  THE VENUE: HUAFAN UNIVERSITY

Huafan University was founded in 1990 by the multi-talented Abbess Hiu Wan. At 92 years old, she remains a poet, artist, and Zen master who has dedicated her life to Prajna Zen. The campus, with its modern facilities, meditation centers, and

elegant stone gardens, provided a tranquil atmosphere for the “Daughters of the Buddha” to discuss the theme: “Bridging Worlds.”

16.2.  INTELLECTUAL EXCHANGE

The conference was a gathering of intellectuals: professors, researchers, social activists, and monastics. Building on the previous conference in Lumbini (2000), which focused on “Women as Peacemakers,” this session aimed to build bridges between different cultures, traditions, and the challenges of the modern world.

The theme of the Seventh Sakyadhita Conference in Taiwan was “Bridging Worlds,” chosen to represent the diverse connections between academic fields, nations, and spiritual traditions. The conference aimed to build bridges between:

Buddhist women in Taiwan and the global community. Diverse Buddhist lineages and world religions.

Daily life and the ideal of world-transcendence. Theory and practice, the ancient and the modern. Gender gaps and institutional reforms.

The ultimate goal was to strengthen the Sakyadhita alliance for world peace and social equality, exploring how Buddhism applies to a globalized world and supporting the international community of Bhikṣuṇī s (nuns).

16.3.  SUPPORT AND LEADERSHIP

The conference was sponsored by several major Taiwanese organizations, including the Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women, the Wuyen Association for the Blind, the National Taiwan University Center for Buddhist Studies, and Huafan University.

The success of the organization is largely attributed to Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo, a professor at the University of San Diego and a disciple of the 14th Dalai Lama. An American-born nun (Hawaii, 1944), she holds a PhD in Philosophy and has spent decades breaking barriers for women in Buddhism. Her physical scars, including snake bites from clearing forests to build the Jamyang Choling nunnery in Ladakh, are a testament to her “engaged Buddhism” and dedication to educating women in the Himalayas.

16.4.  THE VOICE OF WOMEN IN BUDDHISM

Over a week, nearly 50 presentations addressed critical issues. Notable speakers included:

Venerable Tenzin Palmo (UK): Famous for her 12-year solitary retreat in a Himalayan cave, she spoke on “The Rising Voice of Women in Buddhism.”

Annette Lu (Vice President of Taiwan): A practicing Buddhist and the first female Vice President in Taiwan’s history. She championed the concept of “Soft Power,” a strength rooted in compassion, tolerance, and wisdom rather than violence or weaponry.

Venerable Hanh Hue & Venerable Minh Hue (Vietnam): Presented on the status and nature of women in the Buddha’s teachings and the Vietnamese Sangha.

Sister Dr. Malia Dominica Wong (USA): A Catholic nun who spoke on “Love in Any Language,” illustrating her talk with images of children from all races smiling together.

A key highlight was the discussion on Taiwanese Buddhist Nuns, who now outnumber monks three-to-one. They represent a highly educated, powerful force in social work, education, and international relief, serving as a global model for contemporary monastics.

clip_image134.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (first line, far right) listening to the lectures from the Seventh Sakyadhita Conference, Huafan University, Taiwan, July 2002.

 

16.5.  CULTURAL EXCHANGE AND PILGRIMAGE

Following the formal sessions, participants toured Taiwan’s most significant cultural and religious sites:

  • The National Palace Museum: Home to rare ancient Buddhist art, particularly from the Tang
  • Fo Guang Shan (Lanyang Ashram & Kaohsiung): Founded by Master Hsing Yun, this organization is world-renowned for its modern approach to “Humanistic ”
  • Taroko Gorge (Hualien): Visited the Tuong Duc Temple, home to the world’s tallest statue of Ksitigarbha (Earth Store)
  • Tzu Chi: Visited the hospital and institute founded by the renowned Abbess Cheng Yen, whose medical and humanitarian work is legendary in

The conference concluded with a poignant farewell at the Kim Quang Minh Temple on July 20, 2002. Participants departed as “Daughters of the Buddha,” carrying with them the “soft power” of compassion to their respective homelands, with a promise to reunite in South Korea for the 8th conference in 2004.

Taipei, July 10, 2002

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

clip_image121.gif

 
  clip_image122.gif


 Volume III

 

CHAPTER 7

SACRED LINEAGES - THE EVOLUTION OF THE BHIKSUNI SANGHA

AND INTERNATIONAL BUDDHIST MOVEMENTS

  1. Peace of Mind and Body from the Buddha’s Enlightenment
  2. Kiều Đàm Di (Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī) Vietnamese Temple in Vaishali, India
  3. Pilgrimage to Buddhist Temples in New Delhi
  4. Mahāpajāpatī Gotami (The Great Matriarch)
  5. Interreligious Values for a Global Society
  6. Conference on “Buddhism and the Spiritual Journey” in New Delhi
  7. The 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women in Korea
  8. The Buddha’s Symphony of Absolute Silence (Events in India, 2003)
  9. Chronology of Korean Buddhism
  10. Unique Features of Korean Temples
  1. The Buddhist Nuns (Bhikṣuṇī Sangha) of Korea
  2. Women and Buddhist Precepts
  3. International Religious Movements
  4. Formation and Development of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha in India
  5. Finding Peace Within the Mind
  6. Brief Overview of Vaishali

Appendix: Images of Venerable Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong during her studies in India (1990–2003)

Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf Author

7.1.   PEACE OF MIND AND BODY FROM THE BUDDHA’S ENLIGHTENMENT

The birth of the Buddha occurred over 2,600 years ago, during a vibrant era of intellectual ferment. It was a time when the world saw the rise of the schools of Socrates and Plato in Greece, Zoroaster in Persia, and Confucius in China. In India, the Buddha’s homeland, Brahmin philosophers were busy with the logic of the Upanishads, the Jains were debating contradictory categories, and the Ajivikas were promoting fatalism, alongside various other materialist and semi-materialist thinkers. It was to address the limitations of these various traditions that Shakyamuni Buddha appeared in this world.

The Buddha created a revolution in the spiritual world when he proclaimed the dynamic doctrine of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda) regarding life and the world. The goal of his teaching was to bring peace and happiness to all sentient beings. His primary ideal was to help beings transcend the wrong view of a permanent “self,” the clinging to one’s own knowledge (intellectual obstacles), and the desire to possess things eternally. He taught that ignorant efforts to grasp these ephemeral things eventually lead to unrest and suffering.

The first two verses of the Dhammapada provide a summary of the Buddha’s ethical and philosophical system:

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, suffering follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.”

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness follows him like his never-departing shadow.”

The Buddha’s teachings possess a profound and miraculous

meaning. Applying the Eightfold Path, the eight factors of rightness that purify body, speech, and mind, bring infinite peace to one’s life.

In a technical sense, the term ‘Dhamma’ means the ultimate elements of existence: mind (mental factors), matter, and the entirety of existence in the world. Today, even materialism respects idealism for the purpose of satisfying temporary psychological needs.

The awakening of the Buddha and the noble Dharma he preached guide humanity toward peace and happiness. A life of conflict finds no favor in the Buddha’s teachings. Shakyamuni Buddha was not a god of war, but a man of peace. He famously advised his disciples not to engage in military careers or the trade of weapons.

Buddhism is a religion perfectly suited for those who cherish freedom and peace. It contains no rigid dogmas. With boundless compassion, the Buddha taught humanity the method by which he attained total liberation and encouraged us to follow that path through self-awareness. Whether or not we choose to follow this path to renounce the world’s suffering is entirely our own decision.

Buddhism seeks to build a world where there is no war between human beings. Furthermore, the Buddha taught us how to cultivate and increase our wisdom.

In summary, the Buddha taught humans how to live happily, clearly, and freely in the present moment, which naturally secures happiness for the future. Beyond this, what else could humanity desire?

By practicing the Buddha’s teachings, we save ourselves from the suffering and troubles of life. The cultivation of the Dharma is the supreme way to improve the quality of human life. If one integrates the Buddha’s teachings into daily life, they will be

able to resolve all internal problems and achieve true peace of mind.

Furthermore, life will become better and the world more beneficial if we know how to apply the Buddha’s words to cultivate peace both within our hearts and in the world around us.

 
  clip_image136.jpg

The Mahabodhi Stupa, the site of the Buddha’s enlightenment, located in Bodhgaya, Bihar.

Photo by Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, October 3, 1996.

 

 

7.2.   KIEU-DAM-DI VIETNAMESE NUNNERY IN VAISHALI, INDIA

India is the cradle of Buddhism. After centuries of fluctuation, rising and falling, then rising again, Buddhism is currently flourishing once more in its birthplace. The global and local

Buddhist communities are collaborating to build and spread the Dharma, starting with the establishment of temples for monastics to practice and guest houses for pilgrims from all directions.

In the four major sacred sites, Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sārnāth (first sermon), and Kushinagar (passing), many international temples already exist. However, in locations like Vaishali, Kaushambi, and others, the presence is still growing. Regarding the Vietnamese contribution, we have seen the Vietnam Buddha Quoc Tu and Linh Son temples in Lumbini, as well as several establishments in Bodh Gaya and Kushinagar.

2.1.  THE FIRST VIETNAMESE NUNNERY AT THE CRADLE OF THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA

Driven by the desire to create a meeting place for the Vietnamese diaspora in the land of the Buddha, Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Khiết Minh (Kim Lien Temple, Ho Chi Minh City) mobilized resources to build the first Vietnamese nunnery in India. Significantly, she chose Vaishali, the historical cradle of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha.

It was here that Mahāpajāpatī Gotami (the Buddha’s aunt and foster mother) renounced her royal status. She traveled approximately 200 kilometers on foot, barefoot, from Kapilavastu to Vaishali to earnestly request that women be allowed to “leave the household life and live the homeless life under the Dhamma and Vinaya.” Her perseverance opened the gates for women to live a life of liberation, making her the first Bhikṣuṇī and a pioneer in female liberation.160

2.2.  THE FOUNDING OF THE BHIKKHUNI SANGHA IN THE BUDDHA TIME

The Establishment of the Bhikkhuni Order

1. 

 
  clip_image047.gif


Context of the Request

  • Narada, The Buddha and his Teachings, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia, 1977, p. 150.
  • Location: The event takes place primarily in Vesali (Vaishali) at the Kutagara Hall in the Mahavana (Great Wood).
  • Catalyst: Following the death of King Suddhodana, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī (the Buddha’s foster mother and aunt) sought to leave worldly life. The opportunity arose after the Buddha settled a water dispute over the Rohini River between the Sakyans and Koliyans.
  • The Struggle: After being refused three times in Kapilavatthu, Mahāpajāpatī and 500 Sakyan women shaved their heads, donned yellow robes, and walked 150 miles (200km) to Vesali to prove their

2.  The Mediation of Venerable Ānanda

Venerable Ānanda acted as the crucial intermediary. His argument to the Buddha was two-fold:

  • Equality of Potential: He asked if women were capable of attaining the four stages of enlightenment (Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahant). The Buddha confirmed they were.
  • Gratitude: Ānanda reminded the Buddha of the great debt of gratitude owed to Mahāpajāpatī for nursing and raising him after Queen Maya’s

3.  The Result: The Eight Respectful Rules (Garudhammas)

The Buddha finally granted permission, provided that Mahāpajāpatī and the women accepted the Eight Garudhammas (Eight Respectful Rules/Tám Kính Pháp), which established the formal relationship between the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni orders.

The Passing of King Suddhodana and the Founding of the Nuns’ Order

At the time King Suddhodana passed away, the Buddha was staying in Vesali (also known as Vaishali). His foster mother,

Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī, decided to renounce worldly life and awaited a favorable opportunity to ask the Buddha’s permission to ordain. This opportunity arrived when the Buddha returned to Kapilavatthu to mediate a dispute over the waters of the Rohini River between the Sakyan and Koliyan clans.

After the dispute was settled, the Buddha preached the Kalahavivada Sutta (The Discourse on Quarrels and Disputes). Consequently, five hundred Sakyan youths were moved and sought ordination. Their wives, led by Mahāpajāpatī, also approached the Buddha to request permission to join the Order:

“Lord, it would be a great blessing if women were allowed to leave their homes and lead the homeless life under the Dhamma and Vinaya proclaimed by the Tathagata.”161

The Buddha refused immediately without giving a reason:

“Enough, Mahāpajāpatī! Do not ask for such a thing.”

Mahāpajāpatī repeated her request three times, but the Buddha remained firm in his refusal. Later, the Buddha returned to Vesali and stayed at the Kutagara Hall in the Mahavana.

With unyielding resolve, Mahāpajāpatī shaved her hair, donned yellow robes, and, accompanied by many Sakyan noblewomen, endured great hardship by walking 150 miles (approx. 200km) from Kapilavatthu to Vesali. With swollen feet and a dust- covered body, she stood outside the Kutagara Hall.

Seeing her weeping, Venerable Ānanda asked the reason and then appealed to the Buddha:

“Lord, look at Mahāpajāpatī standing outside the gate with swollen feet, covered in dust, and looking very sorrowful. Please, let women renounce the home life under your guidance.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


“Enough, Ānanda, the Tathagata cannot accept the ordination of women!”

  • Vinaya Pitaka, II, Pali Text Society, trang 256.

Though Ānanda pleaded several times, the Buddha continued to refuse. Finally, Ānanda respectfully asked: “Lord, are women capable of attaining the fruits of Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahantship if they lead the homeless life under your Dhamma and Vinaya?”

The Buddha replied that women were indeed capable of achieving these holy fruits. Encouraged, Ānanda entreated: “Lord, if women have that capacity, and considering that Mahāpajāpatī was your aunt and foster mother, nursing you with her own milk and loving you in place of your mother, please, out of compassion, allow women to ordain.”

Finally, the Buddha answered: “Ānanda, if Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī accepts these Eight Respectful Rules, then she is permitted to ordain, and the Order of Nuns shall be established.”

2.3.  THE FOUNDATION STONE LAYING CEREMONY FOR THE MAHĀPAJĀPATĪ TEMPLE IN PRESENT

On the winter morning of January 17, 2005, the Kieu-Dam- Di Vietnamese Nunnery in Vaishali held its foundation stone laying ceremony. Over 120 distinguished guests attended, including:

  • Most Venerable Nyaneinda (Abbot of the Burmese Temple, Bodh Gaya).
  • Most Venerable Pannyalankara (Abbot of the Chinese Temple, Nālandā).
  • Venerable Lama    Gosok    Rinpoche    (Former    Vice- Chancellor of Gyumed and Sera Universities).
  • Srinivasa (District Magistrate of Vaishali).
  • Representatives from the Vietnamese Embassy and the Vietnam News
  • Venerable Thich Giac Toan (Vietnam Buddhist Sangha)

and various student-monks from Delhi University.

2.4.A VISION FOR THE FUTURE

Bhikṣuṇī TN Huệ Phúc, representing the nunnery’s management board (including Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Khiết Liên, Bhikṣuṇī Như Bửu, Bhikṣuṇī Như Thuận, and Bhikṣuṇī Đàm Hải), expressed the project’s core intent:

“‘Drinking water, remember the source’ is our duty. We wish to create a site to worship the First Matriarch Kieu-Dam-Di. This place will serve as a sanctuary for nuns and laypeople to practice, reminding us to follow her example of diligence and ‘benefiting self and others.’”

The project sits on over 7,000 square meters of land. By the time of the ceremony, over $100,000 USD had already been invested in land acquisition, leveling, and initial construction.

2.5.SUPPORT FROM LEADERSHIP AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Venerable Giac Toan praised the initiative as an act of “gratitude and giving,” reclaiming the historical heritage of Buddhist women while building a future for subsequent generations. The District Magistrate, Mr. Srinivasa, expressed his joy at the nunnery’s presence alongside Sri Lankan and Japanese temples, pledging his full support for security and legal procedures. Mr.

P.V. Việt, representing the Vietnamese Embassy, hailed the project as a “cultural bridge between India and Vietnam.”

The ceremony concluded with a traditional chanting service, the formal laying of the stone, and a vegetarian luncheon featuring Vietnamese flavors. Guests received souvenirs, including wood carvings of the Buddha and portraits of Matriarch Mahāpajāpatī Gotami teaching her disciples by a stream.

The inauguration marked the beginning of a new chapter, restoring the presence of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha on their ancestral land.

P.G. Women Hostel, Delhi University January 26, 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.3. A PILGRIMAGE TO BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN NEW DELHI

The life of Shakyamuni Buddha remains a boundless source of inspiration. His teachings on non-violence, compassion, and wisdom are eternally relevant, contributing to both personal happiness and global peace. On the occasion of the 2548th Buddha Purnima (Vesak), our group of Vietnamese monastics and laypeople, including students from Delhi University and friends from Russia and India, set out to visit the Buddhist temples of India’s capital. While New Delhi is home to approximately 20 Buddhist temples, time permitted us to visit six significant locations.

3.1.   BUDDHIST LIVING AND WELFARE CENTER

Located in West Sagarpur, this center is led by Venerable Karuna, an Indian monk from the Tripura region. The temple serves a tight-knit community of about 50 local Buddhists. Upon our arrival, we were warmly greeted with roses, a beautiful gesture of hospitality. We participated in the Vesak ceremony and shared a Chinese-style vegetarian meal. The Abbot kindly shared photo albums of his own pilgrimage to Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City and Nha Trang), strengthening our cross-cultural bond.

3.2.   MAHA BODHI TEMPLE (MAHA BODHI SOCIETY OF INDIA)

Situated on Mandir Marg, this is a central hub for Buddhists in Delhi. On this sacred day, the temple was bustling with Indian

Buddhists dressed in vibrant traditional attire. Families gathered under large tents to listen to Dharma talks and recordings of Sūtra chanting.

Adjacent to this temple is the magnificent Birla Temple (Shri Laxmi Narayan). Representing the Hindu faith (which comprises 80% of India’s population), this grand structure was built by the famous Birla merchant family in the 20th century and remains a major landmark for visitors.

3.3.   BHOGAL BUDDHA TEMPLE

Located in Jangpura Bhogal, this temple is led by Venerable Jan Yai, a Thai monk. Built in 1960, the temple features distinct Thai architecture and houses a large bronze statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, reminiscent of the Thai temples in Bodh Gaya and Kushinagar.

3.4.   JAGAJJYOTI VIHARA SABHA

Led by Venerable Karunananda, this temple in East of Kailash holds historical significance. The Abbot noted that this site is traditionally associated with where the Buddha preached the Mahasibatan Sūtra. We were moved to see a stone inscription recording the foundation stone laying in 1966, an event attended by the former Ambassador of the Republic of Vietnam to India. Our group joined their extensive program, which included Buddhist flag-raising ceremonies, sports for youth, and Dharma quizzes.

3.5.  ASHOKA MISSION

Founded in 1948 by Venerable Dharmavara of Cambodia, this mission sits on 12.5 acres of lush land donated by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. The mission’s name reflects the goal of reviving the Dharma, much like King Ashoka. The temple has hosted luminaries such as the Dalai Lama and various world Buddhist leaders. We were pleasantly surprised

to find an inscription on the altar base noting a donation from Most Venerable Kim Trieu of Vinh Binh, Vietnam. The current Abbot, Vama Lolzang, gifted us books on the Dalai Lama and Himalayan health research.

3.6.   SANSKRITI KENDRA (ANANDAGRAM)

Our final stop was this beautiful cultural oasis in the suburbs of Delhi. This center hosts a meditation group that follows the tradition of Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh. Although the Zen Master was not physically present, the community, led by Dharmacharya Shantum, maintains a twice-monthly practice.

  • Mindful Walking: We practiced walking meditation through the gardens for an hour, guided by the mantra: “I have arrived, I am home.”
  • Sitting Meditation: We sat in a circular outdoor amphitheater, listening to recorded instructions from Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh, practicing deep, mindful breathing.
  • The Light of Wisdom: The evening concluded with a candlelighting ceremony around a giant, ancient Bodhi Each of the hundred participants held a candle, protected by clever paper circles to catch the wax, and walked three times around the tree. The combined glow of these hundred lights served as a powerful symbol of the “Sangha-body” and our shared commitment to peace.

As the night ended, the collective light of those candles illuminated more than just the Sanskriti Kendra; it reflected the serene eyes and compassionate hearts of practitioners from Vietnam, India, and the West, all united under the Buddha’s light.

Delhi, May 05, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.4.THE GREAT MATRIARCH MAHĀPAJĀPATĪ GOTAMI

Mahāpajāpatī Gotami is revered as the foremost Bhikṣuṇī and the founding matriarch of the Buddhist Nunnery. She was the first woman to receive ordination, leading the women of the Sakya clan to renounce worldly life. Her journey from a queen and the Buddha’s foster mother to an Arhat (an enlightened being) remains one of the most significant chapters in the history of human rights and spiritual equality.162

4.1.   RENUNCIATION AND PERSEVERANCE

Born in Devadaha and the sister of Queen Mahamaya, she raised Prince Siddhartha as her own son after the Queen’s passing. Following the Buddha’s enlightenment and the death of King Suddhodana, she sought to leave household life.

The opportunity arose in Vaishali. Leading 500 Sakyan women, she traveled 200 kilometers on foot from Kapilavastu to Vaishali. Arriving with swollen feet and bodies covered in dust, she stood outside the Kutagara Hall in tears. When the Buddha initially refused her request for female ordination,163 Venerable Ananda intervened. He reminded the Buddha of Mahapajapati’s kindness in nursing him and asked if women were capable of attaining the fruits of enlightenment (Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arhatship). The Buddha confirmed they were.

4.2. THE            EIGHT            RESPECTFUL            RULES (GARUDHAMMAS)

 
  clip_image047.gif


The Buddha agreed to the formation of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha on the condition that Mahāpajāpatī and all future nuns observe

  • Narada, The Buddha and his Teachings, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia, 1977, p. 150.
  • Cullavagga, Vinayapitaka, ed. H. Oldenberg, London, vol. II, 1879-83, page 253 ff; Anguttara Nikaya, ed. R. Morris, E.Hardy, C.A.F. Rhys Davids, PTS, 1885-1910, 8.51.

the Eight Heavy Rules. These rules were designed to ensure harmony and provide a framework for nuns to practice humility and respect within the broader monastic community. Mahāpajāpatī joyfully accepted these conditions, marking the official birth of the Nunnery.

4.3. TEACHINGS ON TRUE DHARMA

After her ordination, she asked the Buddha for a summary of the path. He taught her that any teaching leading to ambition, pride, greed, or attachment is not the Dharma. In contrast, the True Dharma leads to:

  • Peace (not desire)
  • Respect (not arrogance)
  • Solitude (not urban bustle)
  • Effort (not laziness)
  • Contentment (not endless wanting)

Applying these principles, she achieved Arhatship. Her enlightenment is captured in her verse: “All suffering I have known, the cause of craving has dried up; I have followed the Eightfold Path, the way to end birth and death.”

4.5.     THE LEADERSHIP AND ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE FIRST NUNS

  1. The First Women’s Order in Human History

The Buddha was a pioneer in establishing a fully autonomous religious order for women with its own code of discipline (Vinaya). To ensure the stability of the community, he appointed top leaders for both the monks and the nuns:

For the Bhikkhu Sangha: Venerable Sāriputta (Chief in Wisdom) and Moggallāna (Chief in Psychic Powers).

For the Bhikkhuni Sangha: Venerable Khemā (Chief in Wisdom) and Uppalavaṇṇā (Chief in Psychic Powers).

ii.   The Eight Criteria of True Dhamma

When Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī asked for a concise teaching to reach the final goal, the Buddha provided a “litmus test” for spiritual practice. This is often referred to as the Gotamī Sutta criteria.

False Dhamma Leads To:

True Dhamma (The Master’s Teaching) Leads To:

Passion/Ambition

(Tham vọng)

Detachment/Dispassion

(An lạc/Ly tham)

Bondage/Pride

(Ngạo mạn)

Freedom/Humility

(Khiêm cung)

Accumulation

(Ham muốn nhiều)

Shedding/Wanting little

(Muốn ít)

Socializing

(Phồn hoa đô thị)

Seclusion (Thích ẩn dật)

Laziness/Sloth

(Hôn trầm)

Aroused Persistence (Nỗ lực)

Difficulty in Support

(Khó thỏa mãn)

Contentment (Biết đủ)

4.6.       THE BUDDHA WAS THE FIRST RELIGIOUS LEADER TO ESTABLISH AN ORDER OF NUNS

In the history of humanity, the Buddha was the first religious leader to establish an Order of Nuns with a complete system of precepts and discipline. He appointed the Bhikkhunis Khemā and Uppalavaṇṇā as the chief female disciples, just as he had appointed Sāriputta and Moggallāna as the chief male disciples.

After her ordination, the Bhikkhuni Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī

approached the Blessed One, paid homage, and asked for

a teaching so that she might achieve the ultimate goal. The Buddha taught her:

‘Mahāpajāpatī, you should clearly wake up to this: whatever qualities lead to passion and not to dispassion; to pride and not to humility; to accumulation and not to shedding; to socializing and not to seclusion; to laziness and not to persistence; to being difficult to support and not to being easy to support, you may categorically hold: “This is not the Dhamma, this is not the Vinaya, this is not the Teacher’s instruction.”164

But whatever qualities lead to dispassion… to humility… to shedding… to seclusion… to persistence… to being easy to support, you may categorically hold: “This is the Dhamma, this is the Vinaya, this is the Teacher’s instruction.”’165

Following this, Mahāpajāpatī practiced with intense concentration, developed insight, and attained Arahantship. Her five hundred companions also attained this fruit after hearing the Nandakovāda Sutta (Instruction from Nandaka). In the Therīgāthā (Verses of the Elder Nuns),166 eight verses from Mahāpajāpatī are recorded. Her second verse expresses her enlightenment and Nirvana:

‘All suffering I have fully known,

The cause, craving, has dried up,

I have followed the Noble Eightfold Path,

The cessation of birth and death has been touched by me.’

(Sanskrit/Pali: Sabba dukkha pariññātā, hetu taṇhā visositā, Ariyaṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, nirodho phusito mayā.)”

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vinaya Texts, Part III: 329–330.
  • Vinaya Texts, Part III: 329–330.
  • Therīgāthā: Verses 157–162. The verses of Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī.

4.7. THE DEEPENING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAHĀPAJĀPATĪ GOTAMĪ AND THE BUDDHA, as well as

the evolution of the Vinaya (Discipline) to include compassion and communal equality.

Compassion and Equality in the Sangha

  1. The Gift of the Robe and the Merit of the Sangha

This event is recorded in the Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga Sutta (The Discourse on the Analysis of Offerings, Majjhima Nikāya 142).

  • The Act: Mahāpajāpatī hand-spun and wove a pair of exquisite robes specifically for the Buddha.
  • The Refusal: The Buddha’s refusal was not a rejection of her affection, but a profound teaching on impartiality. By asking her to offer the robe to the Sangha as a whole, he was elevating the merit of the gift from a personal favor to a universal act of devotion.
  • The Teaching: He explained that an offering to the community (Saṅghika-dāna) is more fruitful than an offering to an individual, even a Buddha, because it supports the continuity of the Dhamma through the entire

2.  The Amendment of the Rules for Compassion

The second event shows the Buddha’s pragmatism and care. When a rule prevented monks from visiting sick nuns, it created a barrier to communal support.

  • The Adjustment: Upon learning that his foster mother was ill and unattended by the monks, the Buddha personally visited
  • The Legacy: This act led to the amendment of the Vinaya, ensuring that the health and well-being of a monastic, regardless of gender, took precedence over rigid isolation It reinforces the idea that the Vinaya is a “living” code

designed to support the path, not to hinder compassion.

“After many years of ordination, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī applied herself to diligent practice, overcoming internal struggles and purifying her mind, which led to her ultimate enlightenment and liberation.

The scriptures recount that on one occasion, the foster mother had sewn a very precious and beautiful robe to offer to the Buddha. However, the Buddha declined to accept it personally and suggested that it would be best for her to offer it to the Sangha (the monastic community). Mahāpajāpatī was deeply disappointed. Out of concern for her welfare, Venerable Ānanda intervened. The Buddha explained that if she maintained a mind of equality and offered it to the community at large, her merit would be immeasurable and boundless because ‘the virtue of the community is like the ocean.’ He also intended this to serve as an example for those who wish to make similar offerings in the future. On that occasion, the Buddha preached the Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga Sutta (The Discourse on the Analysis of Offerings).

On another occasion, when Mahāpajāpatī was ill, no monks came to visit her because the disciplinary rules at the time forbade monks from visiting sick nuns. The Buddha himself adjusted this rule and personally went to visit her.”167

4.8.A LIFE OF MERIT AND MIRACLES

Throughout her 120-year life, she remained a pillar of the Sangha. The Buddha once declared her the foremost in seniority and experience among nuns. At her passing in Vaishali, it is recorded that she performed miracles to dispel any lingering doubts about the spiritual capacity of women. In Buddhist history, she is the only person besides the Buddha whose funeral was marked by such miraculous signs.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vinaya Texts, Part III: 329–330.

4.9.CONCLUSION

Mahāpajāpatī Gotami was a pioneer for women’s rights long before the term existed. She recognized that the Buddha’s teachings offered the only path to true equality and liberation from the “shackles of slavery” (social and spiritual). Her legacy is a testament to the fact that spiritual greatness is determined by effort and wisdom, not by gender.

P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi, January 25, 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, VI, Sri Lanka, 2002.
  • The Buddha and His Teachings, Narada, Malaysia,

7.5. THE VALUE OF INTER-RELIGIOUS RELATIONS FOR GLOBAL SOCIETY

As we reflect on the final decade of the previous century, we witness a paradox of unprecedented destruction and unimaginable progress. History has seen both the most brutal loss of human life and the most significant breakthroughs in human welfare. We have seen the emergence of terrifying weaponry alongside the creative exploration of outer space. In our own lifetimes, scientific applications have raised the standard of living for millions beyond expectation, yet millions more still face daily hunger. Today, humanity confronts existential threats: nuclear testing, ozone depletion, deforestation, air and water pollution, food chain contamination, drug abuse, and the terrifying spread of infectious diseases.

5.1. TRANSITIONING TO A GLOBAL SOCIETY

It is clear that humanity is entering a new type of society, a transition even more significant than the shifts from caves to forests, or from industrial to post-industrial eras. We are witnessing the birth of a Global Society. We find ourselves momentarily off-balance in an existence defined by rapid change and immense challenges.

We live in a world submerged in a toxic legacy of conflict and deadly competition. The widening gap between developing and developed nations must give way to a new culture of convergence and cooperation. The promise of this new millennium is the potential to dissolve the chaos and conflict currently erupting in various parts of the world.

5.2.A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

To meet these challenges, we must develop structured, large- scale educational programs grounded in the clear premise of human existence. This involves the growth of a global consciousness rooted in love and creativity. These creative educational experiences can serve as a source of inspiration, guiding us toward a new educational philosophy based on mutual understanding among all religions.

The Evolution of the Inter-religious Movement

This need is directly linked to the inter-religious movement, which began in the modern era in 1893 at the first Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago, attended by 6,000 delegates. Throughout the 20th century, several organizations emerged to carry this torch, including the International Association for Religious Freedom, the World Council of Churches, and the United Religions Initiative.

Key milestones include:

  • 1993: The Second Parliament of the World’s Religions in

Chicago, marking the centennial anniversary.

  • 1999: The Third Parliament in Cape Town, South
  • 2000: A landmark event where the United Nations hosted the Millennium World Peace Summit for religious and spiritual leaders in the UN General Assembly

5.3. FROM THE PERIPHERY TO THE CENTER

Notably, while the inter-religious movement grew on a large scale in the 20th century, it remained essentially peripheral; it was not yet a central movement of human concern. In many ways, while temples, churches, mosques, and gurdwaras are being built with great devotion, the inter-religious movement itself often feels like an “orphan” with no home.

The question is not whether we will have a global society, but what kind of global society it will be. Will it be based on exploitation, crime, hatred, and fanaticism? Or will it be a healthy, harmonious global society based on inter-religious understanding and peaceful solutions? This remains the most burning question for religions today.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 7.6. CONFERENCE ON ‘BUDDHISM AND THE SPIRITUAL JOURNEY’

 IN NEW DELHI

From February 17–19, 2004, the Ministry of Tourism and Culture of India hosted an international conference titled “Buddhism and Spiritual Tourism” at the Vigyan Bhawan Hall in New Delhi. The event gathered 425 delegates from 25 countries, including religious leaders, government officials, philosophers,

and scholars.

Vietnamese representation was significant, with a delegation of 22 official representatives and observers, including:

  • Most Venerable Thich Thanh Tu (Standing Vice Chairman of the Executive Council).
  • Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang (Vice Chairman of the Executive Council).
  • Venerable Thich Giác Toàn and Venerable Thich Thien Nhon. Additionally, over 100 Vietnamese monks, nuns, and laypeople attended the conference and embarked on a pilgrimage to India’s sacred Buddhist

6.1.THE OPENING: A PRESIDENT’S VISION

The conference was officially opened by the President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. Although a Muslim, Dr. Kalam expressed his profound respect for the Buddhist principles of Compassion and Wisdom.

He cited Emperor Ashoka as the ultimate historical example: a ruler who traded conquest and bloodshed for the Path of Peace after witnessing the horrors of the Kalinga war. Dr. Kalam also highlighted Mahatma Gandhi’s application of Ahimsa (Non- violence) as a modern continuation of this spiritual legacy. As a nuclear scientist, Dr. Kalam noted that while India possesses nuclear weapons for defense, it would be the first to abolish them if global disarmament were achieved. 168

6.2. VIETNAMESE CONTRIBUTIONS AND PROPOSALS

 
  clip_image047.gif


Most Venerable Thich Thanh Tu emphasized that Buddhist ethics are the bedrock of a meaningful spiritual journey. He presented six strategic recommendations to the Indian Ministry

  • The speech was delivered by A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the 11th President of India (and a world-renowned scientist), during the inauguration of an international conference focused on the revitalizing of the ancient university

of Tourism and Culture to enhance pilgrimage experiences:

  1. Focus on the spiritual essence to build bridges of peace and economic development.
  2. Establish representative offices abroad to attract pilgrims while ensuring local security.
  3. Create a global information network for spiritual
  4. Invest in infrastructure at holy sites and protect the surrounding
  5. Simplify Passport and Visa
  6. Organize periodic pilgrimages with attractive promotional

6.3.  THE UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE CEREMONY

On February 19, the delegates flew to Bodh Gaya to visit the Mahabodhi Temple. The visit coincided with a historic ceremony marking the temple’s recognition by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. A stone slab engraved with “World Heritage Site by UNESCO” was unveiled in the presence of spiritual leaders from around the globe. The Indian Minister of Culture pledged to develop Bodh Gaya and Sārnāth into the world’s central hubs for Buddhism.

6.4.    CULTURAL EXCHANGE AT DELHI UNIVERSITY

Following the conference, the Vietnamese delegation visited the Department of Buddhist Studies at Delhi University. Most Venerable Dr. Satyapala, Head of the Department, noted with a smile that because of the overwhelming number of Vietnamese Master’s and PhD students (130 currently enrolled), the department is often affectionately called the “Department of Vietnamese Studies.”

 

Venerable Thich Tri Quang thanked the university for training over 20 Vietnamese PhDs and discussed the formation of a support fund to encourage student monks and nuns in their academic pursuits.

6.5.    CONCLUSION: THE JOURNEY CONTINUES

The conference concluded with a tea party at the President’s residence, Rashtrapati   Bhawan.   Delegates   expressed their gratitude for India’s hospitality and reaffirmed that in a globalized world, the “Spiritual Journey” remains a vital guide for tolerance and humanity.

To embark on a pilgrimage to India’s sacred sites is to walk a path of inner awakening. This journey does not end with a flight back home; it continues on the spiritual ladder of the heart.

Delhi, February 22, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.7. THE EIGHTH SAKYADHITA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

 IN SOUTH KOREA

Continuing the journey of the “Daughters of the Buddha,” the Eighth Sakyadhita International Conference was held in Seoul, South Korea, from June 27 to July 2, 2004.169 Following previous gatherings in Southeast and South Asian countries like India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Nepal, as well as East Asian Taiwan, this conference marked a significant meeting in a nation with a vibrant Mahayana tradition.

More than 415 monastics and laywomen from 30 countries attended, including eight Vietnamese nuns studying at Delhi

 
  clip_image047.gif

University and three others from the US and Australia. The venue was the state-of-the-art Central Sangha University in Gimpo, an institution dedicated to the intellectual and ethical cultivation of the Sangha under the Jogye Order.

7.1.A VISION OF EQUALITY AND RESILIENCE

The opening ceremony featured chanting from both traditions: Theravada monastics chanted the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in Pali, while Mahayana monastics chanted the Heart Sūtra in their respective native tongues.

In her opening remarks, Venerable Dr. Karma Lekshe Tsomo, President of Sakyadhita, praised the Korean Bhikṣuṇī Sangha for its leadership in social service and Buddhist research. Venerable Myeong-seong, Co-President, highlighted a powerful historical fact:

“Without the efforts of Buddhist women during the 500 years of the Joseon Dynasty’s harsh policies, Buddhism might have disappeared from the Korean peninsula.”

She emphasized that today’s women are not victims of discrimination but keepers of the Dharma lamp, a sentiment echoed by the South Korean Minister of Culture and Tourism, who praised the level of equality found within Korean monastic traditions.

7.2.   CULTURAL IMMERSION AND HERITAGE

 
  clip_image047.gif


Participants were treated to powerful traditional Korean drumming and bell performances. The group also toured the Gyeongbokgung Palace,170 built in 1395, and the National

  • According to historical records, in the 25th year of King Seonjo’s reign (1592), the palace was destroyed during the Japanese invasion. It was reconstructed in the fifth year of King Gojong’s reign (1868), and King Gojong moved here from Changdeokgung Palace in July of that year.

During the 1950 conflict, most of the 200 buildings within the Gyeongbokgung Palace grounds were destroyed, leaving only about ten structures, including the Geunjeongjeon (the main throne hall) and the Gyeonghoeru (the royal banquet

Museum of Korea, which showcases the evolution of life on the peninsula from the prehistoric era through the Joseon Dynasty.

A particularly touching visit was to the Beob Ryong Sa Central Bhikṣuṇī Sangha Institute, where Venerable Myeong-seong hosted a dinner and gifted each participant a silk scroll featuring the poem “Wisdom”:

“From the green mountains, I learned to live without words.

From the clear sky,

I learned to live without sin.

Letting go of anger, letting go of greed, Like flowing water, like blowing wind, I learned to live just so.”

7.3.     CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS: DISCIPLINE AND PRACTICE

The theme was “Discipline and Practice of Buddhist Women: Past and Present.” Across six days, 57 papers were presented, covering topics such as:

  • Global Community: Cross-cultural healing and inter- religious dialogue.
  • Korean Nuances: The role of women in Korean social welfare, media (TV/Radio), and the history of the Jogye
  • Global Movements: The revival of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha in Sri Lanka and
 
  clip_image060.gif

pavilion).

Gyeongbokgung Palace is rectangular in shape, featuring four main gates at the south, north, east, and west directions. Since 1990, the South Korean government has been restoring the entire palace complex.”

  • Modern Challenges: Bioethics, domestic Dharma practice, and teaching Buddhism in Western
  • The Vietnamese Perspective: Venerable Nhu Nguyet presented on “Education of Vietnamese Nuns in the Modern Era,” while the author (Venerable Gioi Huong) presented on “Women and Buddhist ”

7.4. THE SECRET TO SUCCESS

This eighth conference was regarded as one of the most successful due to:

Infrastructure: The modern facilities of Central Sangha University.

Human Resources: The meticulous organization and hospitality of the Korean Jogye Order and local lay supporters (Bosals).

National Support: Active participation from the Korean government and extensive media coverage, with 25 news outlets reporting on the event daily.

7.5.CONCLUSION

As the conference concluded on July 7, 2004, the “Daughters of the Buddha” departed with a renewed sense of global sisterhood. The next meeting was set for 2006 in Malaysia, carrying forward the momentum of the Korean spirit, a blend of deep Zen stillness and vibrant, youth-led social engagement.

Seoul, South Korea, July 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

7.8. THE BUDDHA’S SYMPHONY

OF ABSOLUTE SILENCE: BUDDHIST EVENTS IN INDIA (2003)

Inheriting the spirit of compassion and wisdom, Buddhism stands as one of the most progressive civilizations, promoting peace and human solidarity. The “Absolute Silence” of the Buddha’s symphony is not an absence of sound, but the profound harmony of spiritual transformation. The year 2003 was a landmark for Buddhist revival in India, characterized by significant events and the involvement of global leaders.

8.1.  THE MAHA BODHI SOCIETY OF INDIA

Founded by Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala in 1891, the Society continues to be a central pillar for Buddhist affairs. In 2003, it organized the 2547th Buddha Purnima (Vesak) celebrations across several key locations:

  • Kolkata: At the Sri Dharmarajika Chetiya, Buddhist relics were exhibited. Swami Prabhananda of the Ramakrishna Mission attended as a guest of honor, emphasizing that the Buddha’s teachings remain the definitive path to
  • Bodh Gaya: Following its recent recognition as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Mahabodhi Temple hosted grand ceremonies and international meditation retreats.
  • Sārnāth: Celebrations at the Mulagandha  Kuti Vihara included a lecture by Venerable Nawang Samten. The evening was marked by the chanting of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta amidst thousands of colorful lights and floral garlands.
  • New Delhi: A vibrant parade featured a float with a statue of the infant Devotees in white robes followed the

procession through the capital, chanting the Buddha’s name.

The President’s Visit

On May 31, 2003, President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam visited Bodh Gaya. A scientist and a Muslim, Dr. Kalam spoke movingly about the synergy between science and Buddhism:

“The Buddha was a great scientist who discovered the truth for the good of mankind. Science also searches for truth to bring welfare and peace. I am like Ananda, you can call me ‘Chota Ananda,’ seeking questions and receiving radiance.”

8.2.   RESTORATION OF AJANTA AND ELLORA CAVES

 

 
  clip_image138.jpg

 

A spiritual journey to the past: Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương with

pilgrims amidst the ancient carvings of Ellora, 1998.

 

A significant preservation effort was launched with a low-interest loan of 300 crore Rupees from a Japanese bank to restore the Ajanta and Ellora Caves.

  • Ajanta: These 1,600-year-old caves contain breathtaking

frescoes and rock-cut statues depicting the Jataka tales.

  • Ellora: Spanning the 7th–13th centuries, these caves feature a mix of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain artistry. Experts are currently using advanced chemicals to save frescoes from moisture damage and darkening, while the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation plans a new Oriental Museum at the site.

8.3.   DISCOVERIES IN BANGLADESH AND TRIPURA

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) uncovered significant ruins in Boxanagar, near the Bangladesh-Tripura border. The discovery of a massive brick stupa confirms that Buddhism flourished in this region from the 7th to the 14th centuries.

8.4.   LADAKH AND THE SINDHU DARSHAN

The Sindhu Darshan Festival in Leh, Ladakh (May 31, 2003), brought together the Indian Council of Religious Leaders. Scholars emphasized that non-violence is a far more potent weapon than nuclear arms—a message of “Unity in Diversity” born from the banks of the Indus River.

8.5.   SĀRNĀTH: DIPLOMATIC AND SPIRITUAL HUB

Sārnāth hosted several high-profile pilgrims in 2003:

  • His Holiness the Dalai Lama: Preached and meditated before the Dhamekh Stupa.
  • Ambassador Tran Trong Khanh (Vietnam): Visited the Dhammapala Museum and noted with joy a portrait of President Ho Chi Minh displayed there.
  • Thai Delegation: 1,000 members of the Mahamongkalehai Foundation conducted a three-day meditation retreat and donated gifts to local poor
  • Okinawa Peace Group: A group from Japan visited to

receive a Bodhi sapling to be planted at the Okinawa Peace Prayer Monument, honoring those lost in WWII.

8.6.  CULTURAL EXPANSION: THE WORLD’S LARGEST MANDALA

In celebration of 50 years of friendship between India and Japan, a massive Mandala (Thangka) was exhibited. This work, valued at $4 million USD, measures 70m x 50m and weighs 2,000 kg. It was created over five years by 10,000 artists from 16 countries.

8.7.   RELIGIOUS MILESTONES IN ANDHRA PRADESH

On April 6, 2003, the Dalai Lama inaugurated the Ananda Buddha Vihara in Secunderabad. Master Hsing Yun (Fo Guang Shan, Taiwan) attended, placing a foundation stone for a new stupa. This event marked a historic reconnection between Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka, symbolized by the planting of a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi tree.

8.8. NEW DELHI: THE WORLD’S LARGEST MANDALA

  • Event: Exhibition of a giant cloth Mandala (Thangka) marking the 50th anniversary of Japan-India
  • Specifications: * Size: 70m x 50m (Weight: 2,000 kg).
    • Value: 3–4 million
    • Craftsmanship: Created over 5 years by 10,000 artisans from 16 countries.
  • Purpose: To depict the life of the Buddha. Most Ven. D.S. Uchida expressed the intent to bring the work to India and Nalanda to honor the roots of Buddhism.

8.9 LUCKNOW: SOCIAL EQUALITY & COMMEMORATION

  • Event: Birthday celebration of Km. Mayawati (Former

Governor of Uttar Pradesh) on January 15, 2003.

  • Key Message: She emphasized the Buddhist history of Kaushambi and Lucknow.
  • Social Justice: As a devout Buddhist, she vowed to lead 250,000 people to fight for the rights of lower castes, citing the Buddha’s teachings on equality.

8.10.   MAHARASHTRA: WORLD PEACE DISCUSSIONS

  • Event: World Peace seminar at Dragon Palace, Kamptee (Nagpur) on November 8, 2003.
  • Collaboration: Supported by the Ogawa Society of Japan and chaired by Ms. Sulekha

8.11.  TRANSITIONS & MEMORIALS

The year 2003 marked the passing of several influential figures in the Indian Buddhist landscape:

Name

Role / Significance

Date of

Passing

Most Ven. Kushok Bakula

Supreme Head of Ladakh Buddhism; Indian Ambassador to Mongolia.

Nov 2,

2003

Ms. Savita Ambedkar

Social activist and second wife of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (reviver of

20th-century Indian Buddhism) in Mumbai.

2003

8.12.  ACADEMIC & LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS

The report concludes by recognizing the proliferation of Buddhist scholarship and media during this period:

  • Key Publications:
    • The Maha Bodhi (Kolkata)
  • Dharmadoot (Sārnāth)
  • Sambodhi (Bodh Gaya)
  • Buddha Vacana Trust (Bangalore)
  • Academic Support: Contributions from the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies in Sārnāth and various private publishers were instrumental in spreading the Dharma across India in 2003.

Delhi, December 02, 2003

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Maha Bodhi Society of India (Kolkata & Sārnāth)
  • Dhammadoot, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Mulagandhakuty Vihara, Sarnath – The Birth Place of Buddhism,

 7.9. CHRONOLOGY OF KOREAN BUDDHISM

9.1.  THETHREEKINGDOMSPERIOD(INTRODUCTION)

Buddhism entered the peninsula from China and harmoniously integrated with indigenous Shamanic beliefs.

  • Koguryo (372 AD): King Soh Soo Rim invited Monk Soon Doh from The philosophy of Cause and Effect (“You reap what you sow”) gained rapid royal and public support.171
  • Paekje (384 AD): The Indian monk Marananda brought Buddhism to the This kingdom played a pivotal role in transmitting the faith and arts (pottery, architecture, and

      tea ceremony) to Japan.

  • Guide to Korean Buddhist Temple, International Dharma Instructors Association, Jogye Order Publishing, 1995, p.14.
  • Silla (527 AD): Buddhism was officially recognized much later than the other two, but eventually became the unifying cultural force of the peninsula.

9.2.   THE UNIFIED SILLA PERIOD (THE GOLDEN AGE)

After 668 AD, Buddhism became the central pillar of a unified Korean identity.

  • Intellectual Giants: Monk Wonhyo (One-Vehicle philosophy) and Monk Uisang (Avatamsaka studies).
  • Artistic Masterpieces: This era produced the world- renowned Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple.
  • Core Sūtras: The Surangama Sūtra and the Lotus Sūtra

became foundational texts.

9.3.      THE GORYEO DYNASTY (DEVELOPMENT OF SEON)

  • Rise of Seon (Zen): The “Nine Mountains of Son” emerged, introducing a new meditative focus.
  • The Woodblock Canon: Monk Uich brought 4,000 scriptures from China, leading to the creation of the Korean Tripitaka, carved on woodblocks, a monumental feat of
  • Chinul & Taego: Master Chinul established the meditation center at Songgwang-sa, and Master T’aego unified the nine schools into the Chogye Order, which remains the primary sect

9.4.       THE CHOSON DYNASTY (SUPPRESSION AND RESILIENCE)

The state shifted support to Neo-Confucianism, leading to the “Era of Suppression.”

  • Exile to the Mountains: Temples were banned from cities

and destroyed, forcing monastics into the secluded mountain valleys where most famous temples remain today.172

  • National Salvation: Despite suppression, monks like Sosan and Samyong led “monk armies” to defend the country during the 16th-century Japanese

9.5.    MODERN ERA (PURIFICATION AND REVIVAL)

  • Post-1945: A “Purification Movement” sought to restore the celibate monastic tradition after the Japanese colonial
  • Cultural Identity: Today, Buddhism is a “living culture.” Even non-Buddhists in Korea live by customs and values rooted in Buddhist history.

References:

  • What is Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Chorgye Order, Chorgye Order Publishing,
  • Guide to Korean Buddhist Temple, International Dharma Instructors Association, Jogye Order Publishing,
  • A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History, Andrew C. Nahm, Hollym Corporation, USA,

 7.10. THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN TEMPLES

 
  clip_image047.gif


Buddhist temples and monasteries in Korea are spiritual sanctuaries representing the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha). They serve as places for accumulating merit, shedding negative karma, and practicing the teachings of the Buddha.

  • What is Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Chorgye Order, Chorgye Order Publishing, 2002, p.34.

10.1.   ETYMOLOGY AND SPIRITUAL PURPOSE

In Korean, the word for temple is “jeol”. While it sounds like the English word “purl,” its deeper spiritual connotation is “to bow.” Those who visit do not come as mere tourists for entertainment, but as practitioners seeking inner peace, lightening the burden of their afflictions through reverence to the Triple Gem.

10.2.   NATURAL HARMONY AND SECLUSION

A striking feature of Korean temples is their location, nestled deep within mountain valleys, surrounded by lush forests and crystalline streams.173

  • Historical Context: This seclusion dates back to the Choson Dynasty (1392), when the state favored Neo-Confucianism and banned temples from urban areas.
  • The Atmosphere: The journey to the temple is as significant as the destination. Visitors pass through romantic paths of falling golden leaves and the sound of rustling trees, helping the mind transition from the “narrow world” of daily life into the “vast world” of the Buddha.

10.3.         SYMBOLIC    ARCHITECTURE:    THE    THREE GATES

Most temples follow a specific sequence of entrance gates, each with deep symbolic meaning:

  • One-Pillar Gate (Iljumun): Tượng trưng cho sự nhất tâm (One Mind).
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • “Following the collapse of the Goryeo Dynasty in 1392, the Joseon Dynasty ascended to power and championed Neo-Confucianism. During this long period, the government ordered that Buddhist temples not be built near urban areas and demolished existing temples within the cities. This is one of the primary reasons why most Korean temples are located in the outskirts or mountainous regions today.”

– Excerpt from “What is Korean Buddhism,” Korean Buddhist Jogye Order, Jogye Order Publishing, 2002, page 35.

  • Four Heavenly Kings Gate (Cheonwangmun): Guarded by the protectors of the Dharma.
  • Gate of Non-Duality (Purimun): Signifying the ultimate reality where there is no distinction between self and

10.4.         PROMINENT    NATIONAL   TREASURES    AND WORLD HERITAGE SITES

 

Temple Name

Representation

Outstanding Features

Haeinsa Temple

Dharma Jewel

(The Teachings)

Preserves the Tripitaka Koreana, consisting of 81,340 woodblocks.

Bulguksa Temple

Buddha Jewel (The Awakened One)

Features exquisite stone architecture; a symbol of the Silla Golden Age.

 

Unmunsa Temple

 

Sangha Jewel

(The Community)

The largest Bhikṣuṇī (Nuns) Buddhist College; a place of rigorous monastic discipline.

Bongeunsa Temple

 

Cultural Heritage

An ancient temple situated in the heart of modern-day Seoul.
  • NOTABLE TEMPLES AND THEIR LEGACIES Bongeun-sa (Seoul)

A major monastery located in the heart of the Gangnam district. Founded in 794 during the Unified Silla period, it is a center for the Jogye Order. It is famous174 for:

  • Over 3,000 woodblock carvings of scriptures, including the

Avatamsaka Sūtra.175

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. What is Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Chorgye Order, Chorgye Order Publishing, 2002, p. 140.
  • Tripitaka Koreana (Bát Vạn Đại Tạng Kinh), the collection of over 81,000
  • The 23-meter Maitreya Buddha, the tallest outdoor statue of its kind in Korea.

ii. Suknam-sa (Ulsan)

Known as a premier training center for Bhikṣuṇī s (nuns). Located on the Suckahn mountain, it is renowned for its strict meditation practice and the exceptional temple cuisine prepared by the resident nuns.

iii. Haein-sa (South Gyeongsang)

A UNESCO World Heritage site representing the Dharma Jewel. It houses the Tripitaka Koreana (Goryeo Palman Daejang-gyeong).

  • The Artifact: 81,340 woodblocks carved with over 52 million characters.
  • The Craft: The wood was soaked in seawater for three years, boiled, and dried for another three years to ensure its longevity over centuries.176

iv. Unmun-sa (Cheongdo)

The largest Bhikṣuṇī Buddhist College in South Korea. It is a scenic masterpiece surrounded by clouds and mountains. Notable for:

  • A 500-year-old weeping pine tree that spreads like a giant
  • The rigorous academic and manual labor curriculum for

      young nuns includes making kimchi and sewing robes.

wooden printing blocks housed at Haeinsa Temple.

While some sources suggest the Tripitaka Koreana was carved by a single individual–citing the uncanny uniformity of the calligraphy—the sheer scale of 52 million characters makes this physically impossible. Instead, it stands as a masterpiece of collective discipline, where hundreds of carvers adhered so strictly to a single calligraphic style that their individual identities merged into a unified spiritual effort.

  • Tripitaka Korea, Haein-sa, Chogye Order, 2004, 1.

v.Bulguksa and Seokguram Grotto (Gyeongju)

Also, UNESCO World Heritage sites represent the “Golden Age” of Silla art.

  1. Bulguksa: Features the Dabotap (Pagoda of Many Treasures) and the Seokgatap (Sakyamuni Pagoda), both national
  • Seokguram Grotto: A man-made stone cave housing a magnificent Buddha statue looking toward the East Sea, acclaimed as one of the most beautiful Buddhist carvings in the

Delhi, July 19 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.11. THE BUDDHIST BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA OF KOREA

Although Buddhism was introduced to Korea over 1,600 years ago, the official history of Korean Buddhism contains relatively few records regarding the activities of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha (the community of nuns).

In reality, however, nuns played a vital role in propagating the Dharma during the early stages of history. Through the eras of the Three Kingdoms (37 BC – 668 AD), Unified Silla (668– 935), Goryeo (918–1392), Joseon (1392–1910), and into the modern era, Buddhism has continued to be maintained and developed. Depending on the local context, the position, role, and manifestation of nuns within Buddhism have been diverse and adaptable to circumstances.

  • THE BHIKṢUṆĪ    SANGHA    IN    THE    THREE KINGDOMS PERIOD (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla)

Korean Buddhist history records Sunim Sa Morye as the first

Bhikṣuṇī (“Sunim” is a Korean honorific for monks and nuns) who effectively supported Master Ado in introducing Buddhism to the Silla Kingdom. Eight years after Buddhism was officially accepted, the Queen of King Beopheung, admiring Sa Morye’s virtue, built Yeongheung Temple as an offering. She later ordained as Sunim Myobop, becoming the first Bhikṣuṇī of the Silla Sangha.

The Samguk-sagi (Annals of the Three Kingdoms) notes that King Jinheung took refuge in the Triple Gem and received the Dharma name Beop Un. His Queen also ordained as the Bhikṣuṇī Bopun and practiced at Yeongheung Temple. Following her example, many other women entered the monastic life. Additionally, Lady Jiso, the wife of Prime Minister Kim Yu-si, became a nun after her husband’s passing. 177

During the reign of King Jinpyong (681–692), a Chinese master from the Sui Dynasty, Won Gwang, organized the Juhm-chal ceremony in Korea. A Bhikṣuṇī donated significant land to support this Buddhist work. Records also mention a Bhikṣuṇī physician who healed the National Master Gyeong Heung during the reign of King Sin Mun.

In a significant event highlighting the importance of nuns, King Jinheung appointed Master Hyeryang of Goguryeo as the National Master and the Bhikṣuṇī Ani as the Elder (Head) of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha.178

The history of the Baekje Kingdom also notes the active role of nuns. In 577 AD, King Wideok dispatched a Bhikṣuṇī to Japan to teach the Dharma. Furthermore, the Nihonshoki (Chronicles

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • According to Volume 3 of the ‘Annals of the Three Kingdoms,’ the Queen of King Beop-heung established Yeong-heung This historical detail

is cited in ‘Activities of Korean Buddhist Nuns: An Historical Review’ by Gyehwan Sunim, presented at the 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women in Korea (2004), page 34.

  • History of the Three Kingdoms, 43, Yeol Joen 3, Gim Yusin, vol.2; p.34.

of Japan) records that in 588, three Korean nuns became the first to receive ordination in Japan under Master Hye Pyeon; they later returned to Baekje to study the Vinaya (monastic law) for three years. These accounts demonstrate the proactive mission of Bhikṣuṇī s in spreading the Dharma and healing the suffering.179

11.2.    THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA IN THE GORYEO DYNASTY

Inheriting the traditions of the Three Kingdoms, the Goryeo Dynasty saw many royals take monastic vows, such as Queen Yeon after the death of King Gong Min. Nuns such as Seong Hyo (1255–1324), Jong Min, and Cheong Won participated in three-month summer retreats (Vassa) at Su Seon Temple and were issued certificates by National Master Hye Sim. These certificates displayed the refined calligraphic styles of the era.

In 1381, a virtuous and exceptionally talented Bhikṣuṇī emerged, converting many to Buddhism. The nun Manbuhoi worked alongside monks to spread the Dharma, encouraging practitioners to recite the Buddha’s name and chant Sūtras (such as the Diamond, Avatamsaka, and Amitabha Sūtras) to find peace and fearlessness at the moment of death.

By the end of the Goryeo period, the Bhikṣuṇī Myo Deok sponsored the printing of The Analects of Baekunhwasang using woodblocks, a landmark moment in the history of printing technology.

11.3.    THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA IN THE JOSEON DYNASTY

Unlike previous eras, the Joseon Dynasty adopted Confucianism as its ruling ideology. Buddhism gradually lost social and

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Gim Yeongtae, Ordination of Bhikkhuni, Playpeople and Official Priests, Seoul: Korea Culture and Won Buddhism Ideology; 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women, Korea, 2004, Ibid, 34.

political influence and faced severe discrimination. During King Sejong’s reign, women were forbidden from visiting temples, and monks were barred from visiting the homes of widows.

Despite this, women remained devoted to Buddhism. King Taejong once lamented that although he forbade noblewomen from performing Buddhist rites, they continued to chant, keep precepts, and pray for their families’ longevity.180 Throughout the Joseon era, women, from commoners to royalty, served as the “catalyst” for Buddhism’s survival, acting as intermediaries between the temples and the royal court. Even when famous nunneries like Jasu Won and Insu Won were destroyed, and nuns were expelled from the capital, they continued to donate rice and funds to maintain the faith. 181

11.4.        THE MODERN ERA

Today, nuns are the lifeblood and strength of Korean Buddhism. They constitute 70% to 80% of the total monastic population. In the Jogye Order, approximately half of the 16,000 fully ordained monastics are Bhikṣuṇīs.182

Modern Korean nuns play a vital role in society. Many hold Master’s and Doctoral degrees, teaching at Buddhist colleges and Dongguk University. Over 100 nuns have graduated from the Dharma propagation course at Namjang Temple, bringing new vitality to the Sangha. The establishment of the Buddhist Women’s Development Institute (affiliated with Sakyadhita) symbolizes the solid commitment of Korean women to contributing to both Buddhism and society.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • ‘Quotations of National Master Chogye Jingak’, Korea Buddhism Compendium 6, 28:1; ibid. p. 35.
  • Activities of Korean Buddhist Nuns: An Historical Review, Gyehwan Sunim; 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women, Korea, 2004, p.32.
  • 42 Seonsa Banghamrok o Temple Visistors’Book, National Temple Association, 2003; Ibid, p. 35.

With over 30 meditation centers specifically for nuns and the establishment of the Beob Ryong Sa Bhikṣuṇī College in 2003, the community continues to build a society rooted in compassion.

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, June 20, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References

  • Kwangwu Sunim, Discipline and Practice of Buddhist Women: Past and Present, 8th Sakyadhita Conference, Korea,
  • Gyehwan Sunim, Activities of Korean Buddhist Nuns: An

Historical Review, 8th Sakyadhita Conference, Korea, 2004.

  • Andrew Nahm, A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean

History, Hollym Corp, 1989.

 7.12.   WOMEN AND BUDDHIST PRECEPTS

Paper presented at the Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women, held in Seoul, South Korea, June 29, 2004.

In Eastern patriarchal societies, the role of women has often been regarded as inferior to that of men; however, such prejudice is unacceptable in a civilized society. The Buddha was the first great teacher to recognize the potential of women, creating opportunities for them to develop their spiritual capabilities and social contributions.183

 
  clip_image047.gif


Following his enlightenment, the Buddha initially hesitated to

  1. Vinaya Pitaka, II, Pali Text Society, p. 256.

teach, a period known as his “silence.” Similarly, women were not initially permitted to join the Sangha. It was through the persistent pleas of Venerable Ananda and Mahāpajāpatī Gotami that the door was opened. Upon Ananda’s assurance of their spiritual capacity, Mahāpajāpatī Gotami accepted the Eight Respectful Rules (Garudhammas), and the Buddha permitted her, along with 500 noblewomen, to join the Sangha. The Eight Rules are as follows:

A Bhikṣuṇī, even if ordained for 100 years, must respect, greet, and behave appropriately toward a Bhikṣu ordained for only a single day.

A Bhikṣuṇī must not spend the rainy season retreat in a residence where there are no Bhikṣus.

Every fortnight, the Bhikṣuṇī community must ask the Bhikṣu Sangha for the date of the Uposatha and the time for exhortation.

After the rainy season retreat, a Bhikṣuṇī must perform the Pavarana (inviting criticism) before both the Bhikṣu and Bhikṣuṇī Sanghas.

A Bhikṣuṇī who commits a grave offense must undergo the

Manatta discipline for half a month before both Sanghas.

After training in the six precepts for two years as a Sikkhamana, she must seek higher ordination (Upasampada) before both Sanghas.

A Bhikṣuṇī must not abuse or criticize a Bhikṣu for any reason.

A Bhikṣuṇī is not permitted to admonish a Bhikṣu, but a Bhikṣu is permitted to admonish a Bhikṣuṇī.

 
  clip_image047.gif


In the monastic discipline, these laws are strictly observed. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya184 compares these eight rules to

  1. Dharmagupta (S): Known in Vietnamese as Đàm-vô-đức or Pháp Mật bộ. A Great Master who played a vital role in propagating the Dhamma during the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd Century BCE.

a bridge over a great river, allowing practitioners to reach the other shore of liberation. Many scriptures record that all 500 original Bhikṣuṇī s achieved peace and liberation. The Buddha established specific precepts and ordination rituals for the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha, requiring a dual-ordination process: first within the Bhikṣuṇī order, then confirmed by the Bhikṣu order.185

Nuns carry greater responsibilities through their higher ordination. In the Pali Vinaya, there are 227 precepts for monks, while there are 311 precepts for nuns, organized into seven sections. (Note: The Dharmaguptaka version used in China, Korea, and Vietnam counts 250 for monks and 348 for nuns).

While historical records of women in early Buddhism represent about 16.2% of total cases mentioned, this indicates that while the Buddha opened the doors, social attitudes toward women shifted slowly. Nevertheless, many nuns excelled in various fields. Primary sources such as the Apadana, Anguttara-Nikaya, and Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns) detail their efforts to attain Nirvana.

By establishing the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha, Mahāpajāpatī Gotami provided a path for even the most unfortunate and suffering women to find liberation. The Buddha famously declared: “If you can leave the household life, you can become like the Bhikṣuṇīs Khema and Uppalavanna.”

The Legend of Khemā: From Queen to Chief Disciple

  1. Past Lives of Merit

The text highlights her consistent devotion through various world cycles (Kalpas):

  • Padmottara Buddha: She began her journey as a devoted
 
  clip_image060.gif

The Dharmaguptaka, a Buddhist school noted for its Vinaya (Four-Part Vinaya), which eventually became the foundational disciplinary code for Buddhism in Vietnam, China, and Korea.”

185 Vinaya Pitaka, vol. II, Pali Text Society, p. 275.

lay supporter.

  • Kassapa (Ca-diếp) Buddha: Born as Samani, daughter of King Kiki, she maintained a life of purity and built a
  • Vipassī (Tỳ-Bà-Thi) Buddha: She served as a gifted preacher of the Dhamma.
  • Kakusandha and Konāgamana Buddhas: She continued her massive charitable works, constructing great

2.  In the Time of Shakyamuni Buddha

  • Status: She was born into the royalty of Sāgala and became the chief consort of King Bimbisāra (Bình-sa-vương).
  • The Transformation: Khemā was famously proud of her physical Knowing the Buddha taught the “impurity” of the body, she avoided him. King Bimbisāra, a devoted follower, lured her to the Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) monastery by describing its natural beauty.

3.  The Lesson on Impermanence

To humble her, the Buddha used his psychic powers (Abhiññā) to manifest a celestial maiden of unparalleled beauty standing beside him. As Khemā watched, the Buddha aged the vision in seconds:

  • Youthful Beauty: Initially mesmerizing Khemā.
  • Middle Age: Fading vitality.
  • Old Age: Wrinkled skin, toothless, and gray-haired.
  • Death: Eventually collapsing into a heap of

This visual demonstration of Anicca (Impermanence) shattered her vanity, leading to her enlightenment.

“Those who are slaves to lust and craving,

Are like a spider caught in the web it has spun for itself.

The wise, having severed these bonds, depart from the world, Free from anxiety and leaving all sorrow behind.” (Dhammapada, verse 347)

Uppalavanna: Born to a wealthy merchant in Sravasti, her beauty was like a blue lotus. After experiencing worldly suffering and betrayal, she entered the monastic life and achieved great psychic powers and wisdom through intense meditation.

Throughout history, the lineage spread globally. In the 3rd century BC, Sanghamitra, daughter of Emperor Ashoka, established the Bhikṣuṇī order in Sri Lanka. According to the legend, Princess Hemamala brought the Buddha’s tooth relic to the island. In the 11th century, Queen Kumaradevi of Varanasi renovated Buddha statues and built grand monasteries for nuns at Sārnāth.

From ancient times to the 11th century, the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha thrived in Sri Lanka and was transmitted to China, which allows for the modern revival of the lineage in South and Southeast Asia today, including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Tibet, Korea, China, Japan, and Vietnam.

In the history of Vietnam, great Bhikṣuṇī s such as Dam Soan, Dieu Khong, Hai Trieu Am, Nhu Thanh, and Huynh Lien have played active roles in education, culture, and social charity. Today, women leaders across the globe are establishing monasteries and research centers to restore moral values in a declining society.

The fundamental challenge today is how men and women adapt to a new social order dominated by apathy and violence. Modern civilization encourages analytical thinking, but often at the cost

of moral values. There is an urgent need for a social structure that supports spiritual life, protects human rights, and restores cultural traditions.

Ultimately, we must realize the concept of gender equality. The Buddha did not distinguish between the intellectual and spiritual capacities of men and women. The presence of women from over 30 countries here at the 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women in Korea is clear evidence of the positive and powerful influence of women in the Buddhist world today.

Kam-sa-ham-nida (Thank you).

Song-bul-ha-ship-si-o (May we all attain Buddhahood).

Presented in the Conference

in Seoul, South Korea, June 29, 2004.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.13.THE INTERNATIONAL INTERFAITH MOVEMENT

The year 1993 marked the centenary of the Parliament of the World’s Religions (originally held in Chicago in 1893). This milestone represented a significant turning point in the International Interfaith Movement, succeeded by conferences that have effectively brought diverse faiths together at a single table.

Dr. George Carey, the Archbishop of Canterbury, stated at the

Sarva-Dharma Sammelana in Bangalore:

“In our contemporary world, we must be deeply conscious of the persistence of injustice, war, hunger, and environmental

 

damage; we must also be aware of the many ways in which religion can be misused to sustain dissent. My hope is to help religions work together for a common purpose for all.” 186

In Delhi, the former Prime Minister of India, Shri P.V. Narasimha Rao, emphasized the importance of friendship between members of different religions as a vital contribution to national harmony.187

The Chicago conference, themed “Declaration Toward a Global Ethic,” recognized the tragic state of the world:

“Peace eludes us… the planet is an embodiment of destruction… neighbors live in fear… children die of hunger.”188

t concluded that a foundation for a global ethic is necessary to empower individuals to become better and to establish a more orderly world.

The hope of interfaith cooperation is to bridge the divisions of the world. This vision was present in the minds of the participants of the first 1893 Parliament. Charles Bonney, President of the Parliament, believed that the Golden Rule could serve as a foundation for interfaith members to recognize one another as brothers in one great family. “Only then,” he said, “will the peoples of the earth bring a spirit of harmony, and war shall be no more.”189

13.1.   PIONEERS AND OBJECTIVES

The interfaith movement was driven by pioneers such as Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala (who restored Buddhism in 20th-century India), Swami Vivekananda (the renowned Hindu philosopher), and Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (the

  1. In Visions of an Interfaith Future, Ed Celia vµ David International Interfaith centre,1994, p. 14.
  2. Visions of an Interfaith Future, 223 229.
  3. A Global Ethic, Ed. Hans Kung vµ Karl - Josef KuscheL SCM Ed press pp.13-16.
  4. Marcus Braybrooke trong Pilgrimage of Hope, SCM press P. 13.

Indian philosopher-statesman). The Parliament’s work aims to improve several key areas190:

  1. Preventing Misuse: Ensuring religion is not used to fuel political agendas or violence.
  2. Rejecting Exclusivity: No religion should claim an exclusive monopoly on truth or salvation. One should not cling to narrow interpretations that lead to useless division.
  3. Eliminating Fanaticism: Removing extremism and
  4. Dispelling Prejudice: Christian believers, for instance, should cease blaming Jewish people for the death of
  5. Encouraging Dialogue: Promoting meetings between followers of different faiths, especially among the youth, to foster moral and spiritual
  6. Re-evaluating Attitudes: Rethinking one’s stance toward other religions.
  7. Correcting Misperceptions: Addressing the Western media’s misjudgment of Islam.
  8. Respecting Faith: Avoiding the proselytization of those already committed to a faith.

13.2.   THE EVOLUTION OF DIALOGUE

Prior to the 1980s, interfaith friendship grew through increasing participation at local, national, and international levels. Faith communities began working together for peace, justice, and the alleviation of suffering, even praying and meditating together. By 1993, this had become a mainstay of religious discourse.

 
  clip_image047.gif


In the following decade, interfaith unity expanded globally. Today, fourteen organizations are part of the International

  1. Towards A Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor Dr. T.D.Singh, 7-10 December 2003, New Delhi, pp. 10-20.

Interfaith Network, supported by the International Interfaith Centre in Oxford. The 2004 Parliament of the World’s Religions in Barcelona, Spain, served as a major opportunity for these communities to demonstrate their common purpose to the world.

These conferences have also influenced politicians, business leaders, and economists. They have recognized that an ethical and spiritual approach is required to solve the major issues plaguing modern society.

  • 1999: Conferences on spiritual values and “Globalization for the Common Good.”
  • 2000 (Dubai): The “World Development Dialogue” brought World Bank representatives and religious leaders
  • Recent: The World Economic Forum and the UK government’s foreign policy initiatives have begun inviting religious scholars to participate.

13.3.        CONCLUSION:    SELF-POWER    AND    OTHER- POWER

Perhaps the most notable event was the Millennium World Peace Summit at the United Nations, where numerous religious leaders met. Unlike the UN summit, which was a meeting of leaders, the subsequent Parliaments included ordinary citizens and experts from all walks of life.

We must work and pray together, Self-power (Tự lực) and Other-power (Tha lực). These two are inseparable. When we are sensitive to and deeply penetrate our own essence and life, we will naturally strive to serve the world. These interfaith dialogues are “flashes of hope” that transform dreams into new attitudes and activities, uniting us in building a better world.

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, July 4, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

References:

  • Towards A Culture of Harmony and Peace, Dr. T.D. Singh, New Delhi, 2003.
  • Unity in Diversity (Thoughts of the World’s Great Religions),

O.P. Ghai, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.

7.14. THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA IN INDIA

The establishment of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha (Order of Nuns) was a revolutionary milestone in the history of religion. While the Buddha initially focused on the Bhikṣu Sangha, his eventual acceptance of women into the monastic fold challenged the rigid patriarchal and caste-based structures of ancient Indian society.191

14.1. THE SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONTEXT

In ancient India, the caste system, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, strictly dictated social worth, and women were largely viewed as subordinate to men. However, the ideal of the “ascetic life” existed even before Buddhism. Historical records from the Vedas and Jainism show that female ascetics were already a presence; for example, the Svetambara sect of Jainism reportedly had 36,000 female followers seeking the homeless life.192

2. 14.THE STRUGGLE FOR ORDINATION

The Bhikṣuṇī Sangha emerged not as a novel idea, but as a formalization of women’s desperate struggle for spiritual liberation. Mahāpajāpatī Gotami, along with 500 Shakya noblewomen, was a pioneer. They abandoned royal luxury to

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. by Hastings , vol. 8, p. 799.
  2. Talim, Meena, Women in Early Buddhist Literature, 6.

embrace a life of austerity, overcoming severe social prejudices and physical hardships to prove their sincerity.193

14.3.   SPIRITUAL ACHIEVEMENT AND PROPAGATION

The Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns) provides undeniable evidence that women were capable of attaining the four stages of holiness: Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahant.

  • Bhadda Kundalakesa: A brilliant debater whose logic was only surpassed by Sariputra and Moggallana. She traveled across Anga, Magadha, and Kosala for over 50 years teaching the Dharma.194
  • Patacara: A renowned master of the Vinaya (monastic law) who converted 500 women in a single 195
  • Dhammadinna: A philosopher who famously engaged in a deep theological debate with her former husband, Visakha, on the nature of the self and the Eightfold 196
  • Khema and Uppalavanna: Distinguished for their wisdom and psychic powers, 197

The Wisdom of Dhammadinnā

e Majjhima Nikāya (Reference 65) records a philosophical debate between the Bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā and her former husband, Visākha. He raised profound questions concerning the self-identity view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi), the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthaṅgika Magga), mental formations (saṅkhāra), and cessation (nirodha). Dhammadinnā answered these questions in a highly persuasive manner before a vast assembly.

Bhikkhunis such as Khemā, Uppalavaṇṇā, and Dhammadinnā

  1. Monastic Life of The Early Buddhist Nuns, Subhra Barua Atisha, Callutta, 1997, p.58.
  2. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.
  3. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.
  4. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.
  5. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.

stand as iconic figures of talent and wisdom among women in ancient India. Uppalavaṇṇā was renowned for her psychic powers (iddhi), while Nandā and Kuṇḍalakesā were distinguished for their mastery of meditation and insight. Their reputations were not only revered within the monastic community but also spread rapidly throughout society (Reference 66).

This clearly demonstrates that the Order of Nuns possesses the full capacity to achieve great Buddhist works and attain the same stages of holiness as the Order of Monks.”

Key Philosophical Topics Discussed:

  • Self-Identity (Sakkāya-diṭṭhi): She explains how the five aggregates are mistaken for a “self.”
  • The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga): She clarifies how the path is categorized into the three aggregates of Virtue, Concentration, and
  • Formations (Saṅkhāra): She defines verbal, bodily, and mental formations.
  • Cessation (Nirodha): She explains the attainment of the cessation of perception and feeling.

When Visākha later reported this conversation to the Buddha, the Buddha famously remarked that Dhammadinnā was exceedingly wise and that he would have explained the matters in exactly the same way.

14.4. THE “GREAT ASSEMBLY” OF EMINENT NUNS

The text lists several prominent Bhikkhunis, each representing a “foremost” quality (Etadagga):

Bhikkhuni

Foremost Quality

Vietnamese Name

Khemā

Wisdom

(Bát-nhã/Trí tuệ)

Bảo-an / Khê- ma

Uppalavaṇṇā

Psychic Powers

(Thần thông)

Liên Hoa Sắc

Dhammadinnā

Dhamma Teaching

(Thuyết Pháp)

Pháp Lạc

Nandā

Meditation

(Thiền định)

Hoan Hỉ / Nan- đà

Bhaddā Kuṇḍalakesā

Quick Intuition

(Trí tuệ nhanh chóng)

Kundalakesa

14.5.              ARCHAEOLOGICAL       AND       EPIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Your research highlights that the prosperity of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha is not merely a scriptural legend but is grounded in physical history:

  • Ashokan Edicts: The Schism Edict and the Bhabru Rock Edict mention Bhikṣuṇī s as equal members of the 198
  • Sanchi and Bodh Gaya: Inscriptions on the railings at Bodh Gaya (17 in total) honor the Arhat Kurangi (formerly a Queen) for her immense contributions to the 199
  • Junnar Caves: Inscriptions record the existence of a Bhikṣuṇī -upasaya (nunnery) belonging to the Dhammutariya 200

14.5. DECLINE AND LEGACY

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. Subhra Barua Atisha, Monastic Life of The Early Buddhist Nuns, Callutta, 1997, p. 76.
  2. Beal, Samuel, Buddhist Records of the Western World, London, 1889, I, p. xxxix.
  3. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicum, vol. III, p. 273-4.

1.  The Observations of I-Tsing (Nghĩa Tịnh)

The Chinese monk I-Tsing, who traveled to India in the late 7th century (roughly 671–695 CE), noted a distinct difference between Indian and Chinese nuns.201

Simplicity: Unlike the more institutionalized and wealthy nunneries in China, Indian nuns remained strictly committed to the original mendicant lifestyle, living simply and relying on alms (khất thực).

2.  Devotional Shifts

The mention of Subandhu (author of the Vāsavadattā) indicates that by the middle period of Indian Buddhism, nuns were deeply involved in Mahayana practices, specifically the veneration of Tara and Avalokiteshvara (Quan Thế Âm). This shows that the female Sangha was integral to the theological shifts occurring in great centers like Nalanda.

3.  The Period of Decline

9th–10th Century: The historical record becomes silent. References to nuns in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature disappear, suggesting the Order had either shrunk to small, isolated groups or ceased to exist as a formal institution.202

11th Century Onward: The final blow to the remnants of the Buddhist Sangha (both monks and nuns) came with the waves of invasions that destroyed major monastic universities.

15.6.THE STATUS AND REVIVAL OF THE BHIKKHUNĪ SANGHA

 
  clip_image047.gif


The status and revival of the Bhikkhunī Sangha in India during the 21st century is a story of “returning home.” After being absent from the Indian landscape for nearly a millennium, the

  1. Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Practices, 80; Trích trong Monastic Life of The Early Buddhist Nuns, Subhra Barua Atisha, Callutta, 1997, p. 76.
  2. Epigraphia Indica, Xv, 1985, p. 34.

lineage is currently undergoing a fragile but historic restoration, fueled by international collaboration and the Dalit Buddhist movement.

1.  The Global Catalyst: The Bodh Gaya Ordinations

The 21st-century landscape for Indian nuns was set by two landmark events in the late 1990s that continue to bear fruit today:

  • 1998 Bodh Gaya Ordination: Organized by Fo Guang Shan (Taiwan) at the Mahabodhi Temple. This event provided the “lineage bridge,” using the Chinese Dharmaguptaka tradition to restore the Theravada Bhikkhunī line.
  • The Sarnath Lineage: Parallel efforts in Sarnath helped establish a core group of ten Sri Lankan and Indian nuns who could then act as preceptors for others.

2.  The Rise of the Ambedkarite (Dalit) Bhikkhunīs

One of the most significant developments in 21st-century India is the ordination of women from the Navayana (Ambedkarite) tradition.

Social Liberation: For many women from marginalized castes, becoming a Bhikkhunī is an act of both spiritual and social liberation.

Center of Activity: Nagpur and Aurangabad have become hubs for these new ordinations. Unlike the ancient nuns who relied on royal patronage, these nuns are deeply embedded in social work, education, and community organizing.

3.  The Himalayan Tradition and the “Jetavan” Movement

While the Theravada lineage was technically “broken,” the Tibetan tradition (Mulasarvastivada) always had a strong presence of female practitioners (novices).

  • Full Ordination (Gelōngma): In the 21st century, there has been a vigorous push (supported by the 14th Dalai Lama) to grant full ordination to Himalayan
  • Sakyadhita International: Conferences held in India (like the 2004 Seoul conference you cited or the 2013 Vaishali conference) have provided the academic and legal framework to justify these ordinations within Indian law and Buddhist

4.  Key Challenges in the 21st Century

Despite the revival, Indian Bhikkhunīs face significant hurdles:

  • Institutional Recognition: Many traditionalist monks in the Theravada world still refuse to recognize the validity of these ordinations, citing the “broken lineage” argument.
  • Financial Independence: As noted by I-Tsing in the 7th century, Indian nuns remain “poor and ” Without the massive temple endowments seen in China or Taiwan, 21st- century Indian nuns often struggle for basic healthcare and housing.
  • Educational Access: While monks have established universities (like the revived Nalanda), many nuns must still travel abroad (to Sri Lanka or Taiwan) for advanced theological training.

5.  Summary of the Current State

 

Feature

Ancient India (Nalanda Era)

21st Century India

Lineage

Direct from Mahapajapati

Restored via China/ Korea/Sri Lanka

Support

Royal Patronage (Kings/Queens)

International NGOs & Lay Dalit communities

 

 

Feature

Ancient India (Nalanda Era)

21st Century India

Primary Focus

Scholasticism & Logic

Social Justice & Grassroots Dhamma

Status

Fully integrated in the Sangha

Navigating a “Revival” phase

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, January 24 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Reference:

  • Monastic Life of the Early Buddhist Nuns, Subhra Barua Atisha, Calcutta, 1997.
  • The Buddha and his Teachings, Narada, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia,

 7.15. FINDING PEACE WITHIN THE MIND

For a long time, we have understood that fanaticism leads the world toward ruin. Religions must seek solutions to dismantle the barriers of this fanaticism. We need people of peace and wisdom, for only such individuals can break down the walls of separation between faiths and foster mutual cooperation, the ultimate goal of all world religions.

A person of peace is one whose mind is always serene and harmonious. Everywhere, we hear people crying out for peace, praying for peace, and even fighting for peace. But what truly is peace? It is more than just the absence of war, the cessation of hostility, or the unity between people.

15.1.     THE HUMAN ESSENCE AND THE IMAGE OF PEACE

When asked who we are, each of us answers differently. Some say they are Vietnamese, others Indian. Some identify as Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, or Hindu. Others define themselves by their profession: monk, teacher, or doctor. However, regardless of nationality, religion, or profession, we share one commonality: we are all human beings.

  • In Buddhism: A human being is the combination of the Five Aggregates (Pancha Skandha) and the result of their own
  • In Christianity: The central concept is that humans are created in the “image of God.”
  • In Hinduism (Bhagavad Gita): It is declared: “Mamivamsho Jiva Loke Jiva Bhuta Sanathana,” meaning all living beings in this world are manifestations of the Divine.

What is this “image of God”? Is it a being with eyes, a nose, and limbs like ours? In truth, according to spiritual wisdom, the actual image of the Divine is Peace. This is the image in which we were created. Peace is our birthright. We were born with it.

15.2.   PEACE AS AN ORIGINAL STATE

In Zen Buddhism, when Huike (Shenguang) asked Bodhidharma to pacify his mind, the Patriarch replied: “Bring me your mind, and I will pacify it for you!” Huike suddenly realized that his mind was inherently pure and peaceful from the very beginning.

This is why peace is an embodied state of our existence. It is our original state. We are born in peace, we live in peace, and we die in peace, only to be reborn with peace. Yet, despite it being our birthright, we often fail to see it in our lives. It remains an elusive “monster” that hides from us. Why is this? If peace is the original state of our mind, why do we not possess it? Why

do people search for it so desperately?

15.3.   RECOGNIZING PEACE INSTINCTIVELY

Think about this: Have you ever actually seen peace? Have you perceived it with your senses? Has anyone ever pointed to an object and said, “This is peace”?

If you truly reflect on it, you will realize that no one had to point it out to you. You know it instinctively. You have a good night’s sleep, and when you wake up the next morning feeling refreshed, you say, “I had a very peaceful sleep.” How do you know what a peaceful sleep is? You weren’t conscious of your surroundings while sleeping. You only know it when you wake up. This proves that peace is our inherent nature. Like knowing whether water is hot or cold simply by drinking it, peace is a state of being that we are.

15.4.   PEACE AMIDST CONFLICT

Peace is not the absence of conflict or disorder. In this world, no one is free from trouble.

  • For an infant: Teething, walking, and eating are
  • For a student: School, exams, and homework are
  • For a youth: Anxiety about appearance and social perception is a struggle.
  • For an adult: Career, marriage, and the future of children bring
  • For the elderly: Sickness and failing health cause

Our entire life is filled with concern for ourselves and others. In such a state, can we ever truly have peace? Yes, because peace is a state of mind. It is a state of being that remains unaffected by the external forces that cause anxiety and despair. Just as there are storms on the surface of the ocean that swallow ships, deep

beneath the surface, tiny fish still swim happily and peacefully, unaffected by the turbulence above.

15.5.   THE HIDING PLACE OF PEACE

Peace is not something outside of us; it is present within. No store can sell peace. H.H. Sri Sathya Sai Baba203 once said that God looked for a place to hide peace so that humans would not easily find it. After searching everywhere, He finally hid it in the most sacred place: inside the human heart. He knew that humans would look for peace everywhere except within themselves.

If you look at the world today, that is exactly what people are doing. They search for peace as if it were a commodity. But peace is a state of existence. You cannot “find” peace; you must be peaceful.

15.6.  A MESSAGE TO THE YOUTH

To the young generation: all the problems of today exist because the youth of yesterday did not understand this truth. They grew up to be dissatisfied and careless adults, destroying their own peace and the world’s peace. You have a great responsibility because you shape the world of tomorrow.

If you have peace within yourself, you will have peace in your home and your society. You are the one who determines what kind of world you want. Every conflict or act of terrorism reported in the news is a result of a lack of understanding of inner peace. This can be changed by cultivating understanding and love for those around you.

 
  clip_image047.gif


Stop searching for peace externally. Instead, discover the peace within. As the Buddha taught in the Surangama Sūtra: “When the mind is at peace, the world is at peace.” Let us bring that inner peace out and share it with everyone to create a world

  1. Towards A Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor T.D.Singh, 7-10 December 2003, New Delhi, p.18.

truly worth living in.

 7.16. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF VAISHALI

In the past, Vaishali was the site of many significant events in the life of the Buddha. Most notably, it is the sacred ground where the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha (the Order of Buddhist Nuns) was first established in India. This article introduces several key aspects of this holy site.

 
  clip_image140.jpg

16.1.  GEOGRAPHICALLOCATIONANDSIGNIFICANCE

Vaishali (also known as Vesali or Phệ-xá-ly)204 was the capital of the Licchavi (or Vrijian) confederacy and served as a powerful center of Buddhism during the Buddha’s lifetime.205 The archaeologist Alexander Cunningham identified this site as the modern village of Basarh in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar,

  1. Glossary of Buddhist Terms, in Seven Languages, Upasaka Minh-Thông This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
  2. Report of the Archaelogical Survey of India, I, 55-6, xvi, pp.6, 34, 89-

91.

located approximately 58 kilometers north of Patna.

16.2.      THE BUDDHA’S PRESENCE AND PROMINENT DISCIPLES

While it is difficult to determine exactly how many times the Buddha visited Vaishali, we know that many pivotal discourses were delivered here, including the Mahali Sūtra, the Ratana Sūtra,206 and the Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sūtra.

Many of the Buddha’s most distinguished disciples were associated with thiscity, including Nandaka, theelder Vajjiputta, the former courtesan Ambapali, and the elder nun Vimala. To accommodate the Buddha and his Sangha, the Licchavi people built several monasteries, such as Kutagarasala, Capala, and Markata.207

16.3.    MIRACLES AND DISCIPLINARY DECISIONS

Five years after his enlightenment, the Buddha visited Vaishali during a severe drought. It is recorded that as soon as his foot touched the ground, thunder rolled and rain poured down, relieving the city’s suffering.208

The Mahavagga and Cullavagga texts reveal that many important decisions regarding Dharma and Vinaya (precepts) were made here. Most significantly:

It was here that the Buddha announced his impending

Parinirvana.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. Jagdeesh Chandra Mathur and Yogendra Mrsra, Homage to Vaishali, publish by Vaishali community, 1949, 128.
  2. Jagdeesh Chandra Mathur and Yogendra Mrsra, Homage to Vaishali, publish by Vaishali community, 1949, 128.
  3. The Mahāvastu (Vol. I, pp. 253–300) identifies the Ratana Sutta (Discourse on Treasures) as a key text within the Khuddakapāṭha and describes it as a Svastyanagatha (Verses of Well-being).

This is further documented in G.P. Malalasekera’s ‘Dictionary of Pali Proper Names’ (New Delhi, 1998, pp. 709–800, 941–943), which explores the historical and geographical significance of these protective chants in ancient India.”

It was here, upon the heartfelt plea of Mahāpajāpatī Gotami, that the Order of Nuns was finally established.

The Ekapanna Jātaka (Jātaka No. 149) describes the capital of the Licchavis as a masterpiece of ancient Indian urban planning. The triple wall system was not just for defense but reflected the “Vajji” style of democratic and organized governance.209

16,4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES RECORDED BY XUANZANG

When the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Huyen-trang) visited in the 7th century, he found the ancient city in ruins210 but documented several sacred landmarks:

  • The Ashokan Lion Pillar: A pillar 50–60 feet high, with a lion seated at the top facing north toward Kushinagar (where the Buddha entered Nirvana).211
  • The Relic Stupa: Originally, the Licchavis received one- tenth of the Buddha’s King Ashoka later opened this stupa to distribute the relics into 84,000 smaller stupas across the land.
  • The Monkey Tank: A pond said to have been dug by a troop of monkeys as an offering to the Near here, a stupa marks where the monkeys offered a bowl of honey to the Blessed One.
  • Vimalakirti’s Residence: A site marking where the layman Vimalakirti “feigned illness” to teach the
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Ambapali’s Mango Grove: The garden donated by the courtesan Ambapali, where Mahāpajāpatī Gotami and other
  1. Jagdeesh Chandra Mathur and Yogendra Mrsra, Homage to Vaishali, published by Vaishali community, 1949, 125.
  2. Deepak Kumar Barua, Viharas in Ancient India, Indian publications Calcutta, 1969, p.121.
  3. Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, VII, London, 1906, 66-7.

Bhikṣuṇī s eventually attained Nirvana.

16.5. URBAN STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL ORDER

According to the Tibetan Dulva and the Ekapanna Jataka, ancient Vaishali was protected by three layers of walls, each with its own gates and watchtowers. The city was divided into three districts based on the caste system:

  • The First District: 7,000 houses with golden towers (for the Brahmin/priestly class).
  • The Middle District: 14,000 houses with silver towers (for the Kshatriya/warrior-royal class).
  • The Final District: 21,000 houses with copper towers (for the Vaishya/merchant-farmer class).

16.6.CONCLUSION

Given the historical values mentioned above, the sacred site of Vaishali holds international significance. It remains a place of profound spiritual power for the global Buddhist community, particularly for women. The preservation, restoration, and development of Vaishali are essential to honoring the legacy of the pioneering nuns who achieved enlightenment on this very soil.

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, January 23, 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Subhra Barua Atisha, Monastic Life of the Early Buddhist

Nuns, Calcutta, 1997.

  • Deepak Kumar Barua, Viharas in Ancient India, Calcutta,

1969.

  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, London, 1906.
 
  clip_image142.jpg

Interfaith harmony in the heart of Mehrauli:

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and local residents

at the ancient Dargah of Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, October 2003.

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

APPENDIX: PHOTOS OF VIETNAMESE

MONASTICS AND BHIKSUNI TN GIỚI HƯƠNG IN INDIA (1995-2005)

This collection of photographs chronicles ten years of rigorous study and pilgrimage across the most sacred sites of Buddhism, culminating in a Doctorate from the University of Delhi.

1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

Capturing the early years of residency and research in the vibrant political and cultural heart of India.

 
  clip_image144.jpg
  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image146.jpg

 

       
  clip_image149.jpg   clip_image150.jpg

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image152.jpg

 

 
  clip_image154.jpg

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image157.jpg

 

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 
  clip_image160.jpg

 

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image162.jpg

 

2.  Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

Pilgrimage to the sacred garden in Nepal, where Prince Siddhartha was born.

 
  clip_image164.jpg
 
  clip_image166.jpg
  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image168.jpg

 

 
  clip_image170.jpg

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image173.jpg

 

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image175.jpg

 

 
  clip_image177.jpg

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 
  clip_image179.jpg

 

 
  clip_image181.jpg

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image183.jpg

 

3.Bodh Gaya – The Enlightenment Place of the Buddha (1997)

Deep contemplation under the Bodhi tree, where the Buddha attained Supreme Awakening.

       
  clip_image186.jpg   clip_image187.jpg

clip_image189.jpg

3.Bodh Gaya – The Enlightenment Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image192.jpg

 

 

  1. Bodh Gaya – The Enlightenment Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 
  clip_image196.gif

 

 

4.  Dungeshwari Cave – The Forest of Austerities (1997)

 
  clip_image198.jpg


Reflecting on the six years of extreme asceticism practiced by the Buddha in the forest.

 
  clip_image200.jpg

5.  Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)

Visiting the ruins of the world's oldest Buddhist university in Bihar.

 
  clip_image202.jpg
 
  clip_image204.jpg
  1. Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)
 
  clip_image206.jpg

 

 
  clip_image208.jpg

 

  1. Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image210.jpg

 

 
  clip_image212.jpg

 

  1. Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image214.jpg

 

 
  clip_image216.jpg

 

6.  Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

Ascending the mountain where the Buddha delivered many Mahayana Sūtras.

 
  clip_image218.jpg
 
  clip_image220.jpg
  1. Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

 

 

 
  clip_image222.jpg

 

 
  clip_image224.jpg

 

  1. Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

 

 

 
  clip_image226.jpg

 

 
  clip_image228.jpg

 

  1. Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

 

 

 
  clip_image230.jpg

 

 
  clip_image232.jpg

 

7.  Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 
  clip_image234.jpg


The place where the Buddha founded Buddhism and the Wheel of Dharma was first turned in Varanasi.

 
  clip_image236.jpg
  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 
  clip_image239.gif

 

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image241.jpg

 

 
  clip_image243.jpg

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image245.jpg

 

 
  clip_image247.jpg

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image250.jpg

 

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image252.jpg

 

 
  clip_image254.jpg

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

       
  clip_image257.jpg   clip_image258.jpg

 

 
  clip_image260.jpg

 

8.  Ellora and Ajanta Caves (1998)

Researching the magnificent Buddhist rock-cut architecture and murals.

 
  clip_image262.jpg
 
  clip_image264.jpg

9.  Sravasti – The Jetavana Monastery (1999)

Tracing the footsteps of the Buddha, who spent 25 rainy season retreats here.

 
  clip_image266.jpg
 
  clip_image268.jpg

10.  Kushinagar – The Parinirvana Place of the Buddha (1999)

Paying respects at the final resting place where the Buddha entered Mahaparinirvana.

 
  clip_image270.jpg
 
  clip_image272.jpg

11.  Nagarjuna Konda (2001)

Visiting the lake and site dedicated to Master Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school.

 
  clip_image274.jpg
 
  clip_image276.jpg
  1. Nagarjuna Konda (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image279.jpg

 

 

12.        Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

Research tour and meditation in the high plateaus and serene lakes of Northern India.

 
  clip_image282.jpg
  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

       
  clip_image285.jpg   clip_image286.jpg

 

 
  clip_image288.jpg

 

  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image290.jpg

 

 
  clip_image292.jpg

 

  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image294.jpg

 

 

  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image297.jpg

 

 

13.  Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)

 
  clip_image299.jpg


A significant milestone, the successful completion and awarding of the Doctorate in Philosophy.

 
  clip_image301.jpg
  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image303.jpg

 

 
  clip_image305.jpg

 

  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)
 
  clip_image307.jpg

 

 
  clip_image309.jpg

 

  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)
 
  clip_image311.jpg

 

 
  clip_image313.jpg

 

  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image315.jpg

 

 
  clip_image317.jpg

 

 

clip_image319.gif

 

BAO ANH LAC BOOKSHELF

Revised by Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

Books and scriptures can be purchased on Amazon or downloaded digitally at: www.huongsentemple.com/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

1.1.  The Vietnamese Books

  1. Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa (Bodhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions)
  2. Ban Mai Xứ Ấn - Nhật Ký Mười năm Tu học trên đất Phật (1995-2005) (The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)
  3. Sārnātha - Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi Phật Giáo (Sārnātha -

Deer Park–the Cradle of Buddhism)

  1. Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới (Take Refuge in Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts)
  2. Vòng Luân Hồi (The Cycle of Life)
  3. Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee (Snowflake in Milwaukee)
  4. Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm (Rebirth in Śūrangama Sūtra)
  1. Nghi Thức Hộ Niệm, Cầu Siêu (The Ritual for the Deceased)
  2. Quan Âm Quảng Trần (The Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva)
  3. Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ (A Nun and American Inmates)
  4. Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV (The Awakened Mind of the 14th Dalai Lama)
  5. A-Hàm: Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não (Agama – A Dharma Rain Transforms the Defilement), 2 tập
  6. Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris (Collection of Sunlight in Perris).
  7. Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang (Key Words of Vajracchedikā- Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra)
  8. Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm (Songs and Poems of Śūraṅgama Sunlight)
  9. Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa (Reflections at the Temple Window)
  10. Máy Nghe MP3 Hương Sen (Hương Sen Digital Mp3 Radio Speaker): Các Bài Giảng, Sách, Bài viết và Thơ Nhạc của Thích Nữ Giới Hương (383/201 bài); Lectures, Books, Articles and Poems by Gioi Huong (383/201 songs)
  11. DVD Giới Thiệu về Chùa Hương Sen, USA (Introduction to Huong Sen Temple)
  12. Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ (Sharing the Dharma - Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States)
  13. Tuyển Tập 40 Năm Tu Học & Hoằng Pháp của Ni sư Giới Hương (Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương), Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận, TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông
  14. Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở (Songs and Poems of Lotus

 

Blooming on the Way)

  1. Nghi Thức Công Phu Khuya – Thần Chú Thủ Lăng Nghiêm

(Śūraṅgama Mantra)

  1. Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Phổ Môn (The Universal Door Sūtra)
  2. Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Dược Sư (The Medicine Buddha Sūtra)
  3. Nghi Thức Sám Hối Hồng Danh (Ritual of Repentance and Invocation of Sacred Names)
  4. Nghi Thức Công Phu Chiều – Mông Sơn Thí Thực (The Evening Chanting Ritual – Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts)
  5. Khóa Tịnh Độ – Kinh A Di Đà (The Amitabha Buddha Sūtra).
  6. Nghi Thức Cúng Linh và Cầu Siêu (Ritual of Offering to the Spirits and Praying for the Deceased)
  7. Nghi Lễ Hàng Ngày - 50 Kinh Tụng và các Lễ Vía trong

Năm (Daily Chanting Rituals and Annual Ceremonies)

  1. Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022, The Path of Life 2022 (Collection of Sixty Essays from the 2022 Applied Buddhist Philosophy Writing Contest)
  2. Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 (Collection of Winning Entries from the 2022 Applied Buddhist Essay Writing Contest)
  3. Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn (Giới Hương – The Virtue Fragrance Against the Thousand Winds), Nguyên Hà
  4. Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (Dharma Teachings of the Avatamsaka Sutra (Buddhaavatamsaka-nāma mahāvaipulya- sūtra) (2 volumes)
  1. Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (The Essence of the Avatamsaka

Sutra)

  1. Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành (Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision). Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương
  2. Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ (Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta)
  3. Nghi cúng Giao Thừa (New Year’s Eve Ceremony)
  4. Nghi cúng Rằm Tháng Giêng (The Ceremony of the First Month’s Full Moon)
  5. Nghi thức Lễ Phật Đản (The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony)
  6. Nghi thức Vu Lan (The Ullambana Festival or Parent Day)
  7. Lễ Vía Quan Âm (The Avolokiteshvara Day)
  8. Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di (The Death Anniversary of Mahapajapati Gotami)
  9. Nghi thức cúng Tổ và Giác linh Sư trưởng (The Ancestor Day)
  10. Nghi Lễ Chẩn Tế Mười Hai Loại Cô Hồn (Offering Food to the Twelve Ghosts)
  11. Kỷ Yếu Lễ Tưởng Niệm Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di tại Chùa Hương Sen năm 2024 (The Yearbook of the Commemoration of Mahapajapati Gotami at Huong Sen Temple in 2024)
  12. Nghi Thức Cầu Siêu Chư Hương Linh Thai Nhi (Prayer for the Souls of Unborn Babies (Miscarriage, Abortion, Termination, Stillbirth)
  13. Kim Quang Minh Kinh Sám Trai Thiên Khóa Nghi (The Golden Light Sutra - Heavenly Course)
  1. Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka (Buddhism and Holy Buddhist Places in Sri Lanka)
  2. Đấu Tranh Bất Bạo Động Là Nền Tảng Xây Dựng Hòa Bình Toàn Cầu (Nonviolent Struggle - the Foundation for Building Global Peace)
  3. Vũ Trụ Luận dưới lăng kính Khoa học và Phật Giáo

(Cosmology under the Lens of Science and Buddhism)

  1. COVID-19: Vai trò Phật Giáo trong Việc Chữa Lành

(COVID-19: The Role of Buddhism in Healing)

  1. Đại Dịch Coronavirus trong Thế Kỷ XXI (Coronavirus Pandemic in the Twenty-First Century)
  2. Đóng góp của Phật Giáo cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và Hòa Hợp Xã Hội (Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace & Social Harmony).
  3. Phật Giáo Toàn Cầu - Đặc Biệt Liên Kết Với Sri Lanka (Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka)
  4. Phật Giáo Sri Lanka từ Thế Kỷ 19-21 (Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of 19th to Twenty-First Centuries)
  5. Ngày Nhà Giáo Việt Nam 20/11 – Tri Ân Người Khai Trí (Vietnamese Teachers’ Day November 20 - Gratitude to the Master Guiding the knowledge)
  6. Lịch Sử Giáo Dục Phật Giáo ở Sri Lanka: Sự Phục Hồi của Ni Đoàn Tỳ-kheo-ni (History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of The Bhikkhuni Sangha)
  7. Sự Tiến Hóa của Vũ Trụ, Con Người và Nghiệp Báo (The Evolution of the Universe, Humans and Karma)
  8. Vũ Trụ Luận dưới lăng kính Khoa Học và Phật Giáo

(Cosmology through the Lens of Science and Buddhism).

  1. Phật giáo Nga thế kỷ XXI – Cánh cửa Tâm linh (Russian Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century – The Door to Spirituality)
  2. Phật Giáo Châu Phi Thế Kỷ XXI (Buddhism in Africa in the Twenty-First Century)
  3. Phương Pháp Chữa Lành Bằng Tuệ Giác Kinh Đại Bảo Tích (Healing Methods through the Wisdom of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra)
  4. Trí Tuệ Cổ Xưa và Bài Học Ứng Dụng Hiện Đại qua Kinh Hiền Ngu (Ancient Wisdom and Modern Practical Lessons through the Wise-Foolish Sūtra)
  5. Triết lý Phật Giáo và Bài học Thực tiễn qua tác phẩm “Thoát Vòng Tục Lụy” (Buddhist Philosophy and Practical Lessons found in “Transcending the Worldly Attachments”)
  6. Tíchtruyện Kinh Pháp Cúvà Ứng Dụng (2 tập) (Dhammapada

Stories and Practical Applications)

  1. Khóa lễ Ngũ Bách Danh (Hundred Names of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Ceremony)
  2. Nghi Tụng Kinh Di Giáo (Reciting the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching Sutra)
  3. Nghi Tụng Sám Sám Hối Sáu Căn (Reciting the Repentance of the Six Senses)
  4. Nghi Tụng Quy Sơn Cảnh Sách (Reciting Master Guishan’s Admonitions)
  5. Nghi Thức Lễ Xuống Tóc Xuất Gia (The Tonsure and Ordination Ceremony)
  6. Nghi Thức Truyền Sa-di-ni Giới (The Ritual for Conferring the Śrāmaṇerikā)
  7. Nghi Thức Truyền Giới Thức-xoa-ma-na (The Ritual for

Conferring the Śikṣamāṇā (Probationary Nun) Precepts)

  1. Nghi Thức Truyền Năm Giới, Mười Giới và Bồ Tát Giới Tại Gia (The Transmitting Ceremony of Lay Precepts (The Five, Ten and Lay Bodhisattva Precepts)
  2. Nghi Thức Truyền Bồ Tát Giới Xuất Gia (The Ritual for Conferring the Monastic Bodhisattva Precepts)
  3. Phật Giáo Bhutan Thế kỷ XXI (Bhutan Buddhism in the

Twenty-First Century)

1.2.  The English Books

  1. Bodhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions
  2. Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
  3. Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva
  4. The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra
  5. Sārnātha the Cradle of Buddhism (From an Archeological Perspective)
  6. Take Refuge in the Three Gems and keep the Five Precepts
  7. Cycle of Life
  8. Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service— Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương
  9. Sharing the Dharma-Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the

United States

  1. A Buddhist Nun and American Inmates
  2. Daily Monastic Chanting
  3. Weekly Buddhist Discourse Chanting

 

  1. Practice Meditation and Pure Land
  2. The Ceremony for Peace
  3. The Lunch Offering Ritual
  4. The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts
  5. The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra
  6. The Medicine Buddha Sutra
  7. The New Year Ceremony
  8. The Great Parinirvana Ceremony
  9. The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony
  10. The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day)
  11. The Marriage Ceremony
  12. The Blessing Ceremony for the Deceased
  13. The Ceremony Praising Ancestral Masters
  14. The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony
  15. The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts)
  16. Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. Edited by Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
  17. Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace & Social Harmony. Edited by Dr. Buddha Priya MahaThero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
  18. Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy Edited by Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Thero and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
  19. Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Period of Nineteen

 

to Twenty-First Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Colombo. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong

  1. Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of

Mindfulness Sutta

  1. Prayer for the Souls of Unborn
  2. Nonviolent Struggle - the Foundation for Building Global Peace
  3. History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha
  4. The Essential Teachings of Avataṃsaka Sūtra
  5. Russian Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century – The Door to Spirituality
  6. Buddhism in Africa in the Twenty-First Century
  7. Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri
  8. COVID 19 - The Role of Buddhism to Heal
  9. The Coronavirus Pandemic in the Twenty-First Century
  10. Healing Methods through the Wisdom of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra
  11. Ancient Wisdom and Modern Practical Lessons through the Wise-Foolish Sūtra
  12. Buddhist Philosophy and Practical Lessons found in

“Transcending the Worldly Attachments”

  1. Dhammapada Stories and Practical Applications (2 volumes)
  2. The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)
  3. ĀGAMAS-The Dharma Rain Transforming Afflictions, 2

 

volumes

  1. The Five Hundred Names of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Ceremony
  2. The Evolution of the Universe, Humanity, and Karma
  3. The Cosmology through the Lens of Science and Buddhism
  4. The Transmitting Ceremony of Lay Precepts (The Five, Ten and Lay Bodhisattva Precepts)
  5. Bhutan Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century

 

 

1.3.  The Bilingual Books (Vietnamese-English)

  1. Bản Tin Hương Sen: Xuân, Phật Đản, Vu Lan (Hương Sen Newsletter: Spring, Buddha Birthday and Vu Lan, annual/ Mỗi Năm)
  2. Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách - Good Words Nurture a Good Manner
  3. Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản - Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan
  4. Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ - Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream
  5. Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương - Words of Love and Understanding
  6. Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái - The Ancient and Modern Culture through Pilgrimage and Worship
  7. Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống - Art of Living
  8. Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India
  9. The Great Contribution to World Peace and Social Harmony of Emperor Ashoka and Emperor Trần Nhân Tông - Sự Đóng

 

Góp cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và An toàn Xã Hội của Hoàng

Đế A-Dục và Vua Trần Nhân Tông

1.4.  Translated Books

  1. Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật (Relics of the Buddha), Tham Weng Yew
  2. Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù (Lotus in Prison), many
  3. Chùa Việt Nam Hải Ngoại (Overseas Vietnamese Buddhist Temples)
  4. Việt Nam Danh Lam Cổ Tự (The Famous Ancient Buddhist Temples in Vietnam)
  5. Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc – (Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music)
  6. Phật Giáo - Một Bậc Đạo Sư, Nhiều Truyền Thống (Buddhism: One Teacher – Many Traditions), Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma 14th & Ni Sư Thubten Chodren
  7. Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết - Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective)

2. Buddhist Music Albums From Poems of Thích Nữ Giới Hương

  1. Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh (The Buddha’s Teachings Reflected in Cherry Flowers)
  2. Niềm Tin Tam Bảo (Trust in the Three Gems)
  3. Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai (The Thousand-Year Full Moon Awaits)
  1. Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp (Moonlight of Dharma-Buddha)
  2. Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Awakened Mind at the Dawn) (Piano

Variations for Meditation)

  1. Tiếng Hát Già Lam (Song from the Temple)
  2. Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa (The Magnificent, Ancient Buddhist Temple)
  3. Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở (An Udumbara Flower Is Blooming)
  4. Hương Sen Ca (Hương Sen’s Songs)
  5. Về Chùa Vui Tu (Happily Go to Temple for Spiritual Practices)
  6. Gọi Nắng Xuân Về (Call the Spring Sunlight)
  7. Đệ Tử Phật (Buddhist Disciples)
  8. Hoa Phước Đức (Flower of Merit)
  9. Vu Lan Báo Hiếu (Filial Piety in the Vu Lan Season)
  10. Nương Bóng Từ Quang (Refuge in the Buddha)

Please visit: http://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/kinh- sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

 

 

 

 

 About the Author

 
  clip_image321.jpg

B
 

orn in 1963 in Bình Thuận, Vietnam, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương entered the monastic life at the age of fifteen under the tutelage of the renowned Master, the Most Venerable Bhikkhunī Hải Triều Âm. Her academic journey began with a Bachelor’s Degree in Literature from Sài Gòn University in 1994, followed by fifteen years of intensive study in India, culminating in a Ph.D. in Buddhist Philosophy from the

University of Delhi in 2003.

Since relocating to the United States in 2005, she earned a second Bachelor’s in Literature from the University of California,

Riverside (2015). Today, she shares her expertise as a lecturer at the Vietnam Buddhist University in Ho Chi Minh City and various Buddhist centers across the United States.

Finding inspiration in the profound silence of Dharma contemplation, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương is a prolific author, translator, and lyricist. Under her Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf, she has published an impressive collection of 134 titles in both English and Vietnamese as of April 2026.1

In April 2010, she founded the Hương Sen Temple in Perris, California, where she currently serves as Abbess. This ten-acre sanctuary, nestled in the semi-desert of southern California, was officially incorporated as a 501(c)(3) religious nonprofit in June 2011. Today, the temple is home to the Abbess, six resident Bhikṣuṇī disciples, and their three canine companions: Rosie, Bruno, and Rudy.

 
  clip_image323.jpg
 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

 129. Cover The Dawn In India

The Dawn In India

 
  clip_image001.gif


A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

clip_image003.gifBảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf 129

 

 

 

 

THE

DAWN

IN INDIA -

A TEN-YEAR DIARY OF BUDDHIST DISCOVERY (1995–2005)

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

clip_image005.gifHƯƠNG SEN

Pu blis hin g

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Huong Sen Buddhist Temple

19865 Seaton Avenue, Perris, CA 92570, USA Tel: (951) 657-7272, Cell: (951) 616-8620

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. https://www.facebook.com/Huong.Sen.Riverside/ Web: www.huongsentemple.com

First English Edition 2026 by Huong Sen Buddhist Temple in the United States.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the ancient, Master Xuanzang sought the Truth divine, Now Vietnamese monastics follow the sacred sign.

From East and West, all journey to the Buddha’s home, To greet the Dawn in India, where brilliant lights shine.

 

oOo

Xưa kia tìm ánh Đạo mầu,

Đường Tam Tạng bước dãi dầu tuyết sương.

Nay Tăng Ni Việt chung đường,

Noi theo thánh tích muôn phương hội về.

Đông Tây chung một bồ-đề, Bình minh đất Ấn tràn trề quang huy.

 

 

CONTENTS

Preface to the English Version                                                  11

Introduction                                                                                13

Preface                                                                                        16

VOLUME I

Chapter 1: Come to the Land of India                                 23

Chapter 2: Department of Buddhist studies in

Delhi University                                                                        40

  • Overview of the Master of Arts (M.A.)

in Buddhist Studies                                                           40

Chapter 3: Pilgrimage to the Holy Sites                               71

in the Mahabodhi Temple Complex                                95

Chapter 4: Academic and Spiritual Life

of Vietnamese Monastics                                                      208

4.1. Academic Pursuits at the University of Delhi              208

Chapter 5: The Magnificent Landscapes

and Landmarks of India                                                       253

5.1. Manali                                                                             253

2.2. Taj Mahal – Agra                                                            256

3.3. Shimla: the Summer Capital                                          259

VOLUME II

Chapter 6: Buddhist Legacy

and International Connections                                            279

in Bodh Gaya, India                                                       280

  • Ten Days of Dharma Teachings

by His Holiness the Dalai Lama in Bodh Gaya           287

of the Millennium Year 2000 in Sārnāth (Deer Park) 292 6..4. Challenges in Inter-Religious Partnerships                                                                              295

  • The Sixth SakyadhitaInternational Conference

in Nepal                                                                           299

of the Buddha’s Enlightenment                                     337

  • Celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment

and Symposium in Bodh Gaya                                      341

  • The Seventh Sakyadhita International Conference

in Taiwan                                                                        344

VOLUME III

Chapter 7: Sacred Lineages - The Evolution of the Bhiksuni Sangha and International

Buddhist Movements                                                            351

  • Peace of Mind and Body

from The Buddha’s Enlightenment                               353

  • Kieu-Dam-Di Vietnamese Nunnery in Vaishali, India 355

6.3. A Pilgrimage to Buddhist Temples in New Delhi        361

for Global Society                                                          370

in New Delhi                                                                  372

in South Korea                                                               375

  • The Buddha’s Symphony of Absolute Silence:

Buddhist Events in India (2003)                                   379

of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha in India                                    403

Appendix:                                                                                 419

Photos of Vietnamese Monastics

and Bhiksuni TN Giới Hương in India (1995-2005)             419

Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf                                                          465

About the Author                                                                    477

 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH VERSION

S
 

panning a 21-year journey (2005–2026), The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995– 2005) (Ban Mai Xứ Ấn – Nhật Ký Mười Năm Tu học tại đất Phật) has become a close companion to many readers. Following four successful printings, this fifth edition returns with a distinguished new format: a comprehensive single-volume collection of 434 pages, consolidating the original three-volume series into one.

Furthermore, with all conditions favorably aligned, the work is now officially debuting in English.

This edition reflects the aspiration to encapsulate over three decades of a spiritual and academic journey through four key updates:

Refinement: The content has been meticulously edited to remove redundancies, ensuring a more concise, coherent, and accessible narrative.

Illustrative Imagery: Each chapter is interspersed with vivid illustrations that clarify and enhance the transmission of the teachings.

Ban Mai Xứ Ấn – Nhật Ký Mười Năm Tu học tại đất Phật (1995-2005): The Appendix has been expanded to include 94 precious photographs of monastic students and pilgrimage delegations at various sacred sites between 1995 and 2005. These serve as a “living documentary” of an early period,

one filled with hardships yet brimming with spiritual joy, for Vietnamese monastics in India at the end of the 20th century.

Academic Contribution: The table of contents has been systematically reorganized, featuring a specialized compilation of thesis and dissertation topics from monastic students in the 1990s. This serves as a practical reference and an inspiration for the research paths of current students.

This edition reached completion through the dedicated support of Mr. Vũ Đình Trọng, Mr. Michael Davis, and our enthusiastic collaborators, along with the assistance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in editing and data organization. We wish to express our deepest gratitude for these meritorious contributions.

It is our hope that this book will serve as a bridge connecting the past and the present, further igniting the flame of wisdom for those venturing on the path of Buddhist studies in India.

Homage to the Blessed and Fully Awakened Buddha.

 

 

Huong Sen Spring, April 2026 Sincerely,

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

 

 

 INTRODUCTION

‘T
 

he Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)’ by Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

is a memoir chronicling the thoughts, Buddhist activities, and academic journey of a nun who spent ten years studying at the University of Delhi. It also captures the sacred emotions experienced while personally visiting and prostrating at the Buddhist holy sites in India.

Lumbini (the birthplace of the Prince Siddhartha/Buddha), Bodh Gaya (the place of Enlightenment), Sārnāth (where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of Dharma), and Kushinagar (where the Buddha entered Parinirvana) are the four famous holy sites of Buddhism. These four pivotal stages, along with other events in the Buddha’s life, have served as subjects for thousands of Buddhist artworks. Numerous temples, stupas, and inscriptions were built to honor these sites.

However, through centuries of Buddhist decline and absence in India, most of these relics were destroyed, burned, and fell into ruin over time. Today, archaeologists are excavating and attempting to restore them to their ancient original forms.

Key Highlights of the Work

In “The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)”, the author provides:

Detailed Descriptions: Meticulous accounts of important Buddhist Holy Places and personal reflections.

Historical Context: References to the historical records of Faxian and Xuanzang, as well as modern Buddhist literature, complete with documentary photos and illustrative maps.

Academic Insights: Guidance on Master’s, M.Phil., and PhD programs within the Department of Buddhist Studies at the University of Delhi.

Contemporary Life: Observations on the daily lives of monks and nuns, the state of Buddhism in India, and other modern contexts.

These insights and experiences serve as a valuable resource for young monastics intending to study in India or embark on pilgrimages. Furthermore, the book documents a historical chapter involving over 150 Vietnamese monks and nuns who traveled abroad to study in India in the 1990s.

I respectfully introduce Dawn in the Land of India to the Venerable Elders, scholars, and readers everywhere.

March 26, 2006

Most Venerable Thích Mãn Giác

Abbot of the Vietnam Temple in Los Angeles, USA

Keep your eyes wide to behold, O traveler, The Dawn in India, exquisitely beautiful.

Preserving pages of Buddhist history to brighten life,

In the flowing waters of the Ganges, whose reflection shines?

For a thousand years, the Buddha Tathagata, In the sparkling Ganges, His image appears.

Hãy mở mắt mãi nhìn người ơi Ban mai Ấn-độ tuyệt vời đẹp tươi Lưu trang Phật sử sáng đời

Sông Hằng nước chảy rạng ngời bóng ai Nghìn năm Phật tổ Như-lai

Sông Hằng lấp lánh bóng ngài hiện ra.

Dawn in the Land of India – 3 Volumes March 29, 2006

Most Venerable Thích Mãn Giác

 

 

 

 

 

 PREFACE

A
 

ll things change, and time flows relentlessly. It has been exactly ten years (1995-2005) since I was blessed

with the opportunity to study and practice in the land of the Buddha, India, the place where our Great Buddha manifested and taught twenty-six centuries ago. As the day of my return to my homeland nears, I take up this pen to preserve for myself and others the sacred images of the historical paths where the Buddha and his disciples left their footprints.

I wish to capture the cherished memories of fellow monastics at the University of Delhi, the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel, and the multicultural tapestry of India’s people and landscapes. This work is a small token of my desire to share the knowledge gained at the University of Delhi and the insights from my pilgrimages with those who may not yet have, or are soon to have, the karma to visit India. It is also an expression of deep gratitude toward my benefactors, teachers, and the Triple Gem who have supported my spiritual life for over twenty years.

In the 7th century, Master Xuanzang traveled alone across treacherous terrain and harsh climates to seek the holy sites and study at Nālandā University. In the 21st century, travel for study and pilgrimage is far more accessible, which is why nearly 200 Vietnamese monastics have journeyed to India in recent years.

I titled this collection “THE DAWN IN INDIA: A TEN-YEAR DIARY OF BUDDHIST DISCOVERY (1995–2005)” because

the image of sunrise over the sacred Ganges River (Varanasi, India) moved me profoundly. The Ganges is the most sacred river mentioned in Buddhist scriptures, revered by Indians as a goddess or a mother who bestows life.

From ancient times to the present, as the sun slowly rises in the east, the light cloaks the water in a shimmering, silvery-pink hue. Against a jade-like sky, millions of people gather along the banks to bathe, pray, and drink the sacred water. The cities and ancient pilgrimage centers lining these shores represent the pinnacle of Indian civilization. It is this mystical and romantic atmosphere that inspired me to write about my years of study here in ten years (1995-2005).

Overview of the Three Volumes

The collection is organized as follows:

Volume I: Amemoir reflecting on my experiences while studying at the University of Delhi and on pilgrimage, introducing readers to the culture, education, religion, and people of India.

Volume II: A collection of 16 articles previously published in Buddhist magazines and websites. Topics include the Maitreya Buddha project in Bodh Gaya, teachings of the Dalai Lama, the history of the Bodhi Tree, and the legacy of Nālandā University.

Volume III: Comprises 16 writings on diverse subjects, such as the Kiều Đàm Di (Mahapajapati) Vietnamese Temple in Vaishali, Buddhist pilgrimages in New Delhi, Korean Buddhism, women and Buddhist precepts, and reflections on global peace, and so on.

I respectfully present these three volumes to you, the readers. I kindly ask for your compassion in correcting any errors or omissions that may have occurred due to my limited capacity.

With sincere gratitude, Delhi, Summer 2005 Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image007.jpg

A Moment of Reflection: Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in the floral courtyard of the Faculty of Arts Library, University of Delhi (1995).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

clip_image009.gif

 
  clip_image011.gif


 Volume I

 

 CHAPTER 1: COME TO THE LAND OF INDIA

  • Dream to study in India be true
  • The First Days in Delhi
  • Rent Room in Kingsway Camp to study
  • Post-Graduate Women’s Hostel

CHAPTER 2: BUDDHIST STUDIES IN UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

  • Overview of the Master of Arts (M.A.) in Buddhist Studies
  • Phil (Master of Philosophy) Program
  • Doctoral (Ph.D.) Program

CHAPTER 3: PILGRIMAGE TO BUDDHIST HOLY SITES

  • Bodhgaya
  • Rājagaha
  • Nālandā
  • Sārnāth
  • Lumbini
  • Kushinagar
  • Amaravathi
  • Nāgārjunikoṇḍā

CHAPTER 4: ACADEMIC AND SPIRITUAL LIFE OF

 

VIETNAMESE MONASTIC

  • Lunar New Year and other ceremonies in Delhi (February

1996)

  • Regulations on The Management of Vietnamese Students in India
  • The Association of Vietnamese Students in Delhi
  • Academic Challenges and the topic of Buddhis Studies
  • Reflections On Keeping a Diary
  • Seminar Society Yearbook Reflections (02-06-2001)

CHAPTER 5: THE MAGNIFICENT LANDSCAPES AND LANDMARKS OF INDIA

  • Manali
  • Taj Mahal – Agra
  • Shimla
  • Himalaya Mount, Nepal
  • Mumbai
  • Elephanta Caves
  • Madras
  • Naini Tal
 
  clip_image013.jpg

CHAPTER 1

COME TO THE LAND OF INDIA

 1.1.   DREAM TO STUDY IN INDIA BE TRUE

I
 

left Vietnam over two years ago, at 1:30 PM on June 19, 1995, departing from Tan Son Nhat Airport on Thai Airways

to Delhi, India. Late that same night, India welcomed me with pale yellow streetlights and the first rains of the season veiling the streets.

 
  clip_image015.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương: Flying with the dream of studying in India. Aboard Thai Airways, June 19, 1995, commencing a ten-year journey of academic and spiritual discovery.

 

India has become my second home, a place that has helped me to win my abroad study and cultivate my understanding of the Dharma and broaden my knowledge after years of living in temples and studying at the Vietnam Institute of Advanced Buddhist Studies (1989-1994, Khóa II, Trường Cao Cấp Phật Học, HCM City).

I love India deeply and tenderly. It is a land of poetic landscapes and a people with customs that are quite strange yet incredibly charming. While I wish to write volumes about this country, I can only introduce a few joyful and unique glimpses of the land of India here.

1.1.i.         THE     PROFOUND     HERITAGE    OF    INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

India is the seventh-largest country in the world, spanning 3,288,000km. From the far north, it rests its head on the Himalayas, where majestic mountains are draped in white snow. To the far south, it stretches along the Indian Ocean with romantic, sun-drenched, and seductive beaches.

The country boasts four major cities:

  • Kolkata (Calcutta): In the East, gentle and rustic, with the blue Hooghly River winding through it.
  • Chennai (Madras): In the South, the heart of traditional Tamil culture, with its solemn, ancient
  • Mumbai (Bombay): In the West, a bustling commercial hub, as glamorous as a fairy wearing shimmering embroidered slippers during night festivals.
  • Delhi: In the North, the capital and a renowned center for culture and education, is the place where many “young birds” from Vietnam, like myself, have come to nest and

India is a country renowned for its sublime and profound philosophical foundations. It stands as one of the oldest, richest, and most unique cradles of ancient philosophy for humanity in general, and the East in particular.

Ancient Scriptures and Epics

The Vedas, including the ancient Rig-veda, express the primitive yet philosophically sophisticated cosmic concepts of the ancient Indians, interpreting the ultimate origin and essence of the “Tao” (the Way). The massive epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, hold immense value not only in history, literature, and linguistics but also offer deep insights into moral philosophy and human existence.

Buddhist and Traditional Schools

The teachings of the Buddha, with philosophies such as the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Twelve Links of Dependent Origination,” elucidate the nature of things and the true essence of humanity. They point toward a path of self-liberation through intuitive perception and “spiritual realization.” This is truly a philosophy of life, a way of living.

Various schools, including Jainism, Hinduism, Yoga, and Samkhya, have interpreted the principles of the universe as an absolute, miraculous, and immortal force. This force remains hidden behind and governs the visible, phenomenal world of birth and death. These systems aim to help the human spirit transcend internal conflicts:

  • Between good and evil.
  • Between the infinite, immortal absolute spirit and the tangible world of sensory

Indian philosophical thought is incredibly profound and rich, rivaling any rationalist system of the West.

A Western Perspective

It was this depth that led the Western historian Michelet (1789– 1874) to praise it with great admiration:

“Whoever has acted or desired too much, let them drink deeply from this cup of life and youth. In the West, everything is narrow. Tiny Greece makes me feel stifled; the dry land of Judea makes it hard for me to breathe. Let me turn toward Great Asia and the profound East for a moment. It is there that my great poem was born, as vast as the Indian Ocean, overflowing with brilliant and benevolent sunlight, creating an atmosphere of peace and boundless love even amidst scenes of conflict and contradiction.”1

1.1.ii.   VIBRANT FESTIVALS AND CULTURE

India is a land of many religions and beliefs, resulting in colorful festivals filled with unique rituals. While Hinduism accounts for 80% of the population (Buddhism is a modest 0.8%), its festivals define much of the cultural landscape.

  • Naag Panchami: A day to worship snakes, symbols of rain, and protectors against evil.
  • Raksha Bandhan: Where devotees of the sea god Varuna offer coconuts to the waters. I once saw a car filled to the brim with coconuts being driven to the sea in Mumbai for this ritual.
  • Diwali (The Festival of Lights): Comparable to the Vietnamese Lunar New Year. It marks the victory of light over darkness and honors Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. Homes are cleaned, decorated with flowers and “rangoli” (colored powder designs), and illuminated
 
  clip_image016.gif
  • Nehru Jawaharlal, The Discovery of India, Signel, Calcutta 1956, page

by countless oil lamps (diyas) and candles, making the Indian sky glow. For a student far from home, the sound of firecrackers and the smoky mist of Diwali poignantly stir memories of the homeland.

a.The Joyous Spirit of Holi

The most exhilarating and mischievous festival is Holi, celebrating the victory of right over wrong. It marks the end of winter and the arrival of spring.

The day of Holi is a riot of color. Young people gather to throw “gulal” (colored powder) and spray colored water on friends and strangers alike. If you step outside on this day, expect to be greeted with a face full of pigment and a “Happy Holi!”

 
  clip_image018.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (left) and Lê T. Tâm (right): Drenched in water and covered in colorful powder while joining students to celebrate the Holi Festival at the P.G. Women’s Hostel, March 1996.

 

At my residence, the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel, which

houses 400 students, the celebration was boisterous. My friend and I, the two Vietnamese students, tried to peek out to watch the festivities, but we were immediately swarmed by students shouting “Happy Holi!”

Soon, our faces were a messy mosaic of black, red, blue, and yellow. We watched the Indian students, usually so elegant and beautiful, dancing wildly in the mud and water, looking more like comedic characters than the graceful young women we knew. We laughed until our sides ached, truly, “laughter is the best medicine.” By the time I looked in a public mirror, I didn’t even recognize my own face!

b.An Invitation

India, to me, is a collection of cherished memories: the purple chrysanthemums at the University of Delhi, classmates from all corners of the world, the hardworking elderly gatekeepers, the sweating rickshaw pullers, and the street children whose faces are smudged with dirt but who find joy in a single Rupee.

c.Come to India. Come for its poetic scenery, its rustic people, and its profound spiritual philosophy. It is a world of mystery and wonder. Visiting India is not just about learning the nuances of an ancient civilization; it is about enriching your own thoughts.

Most importantly, for children of the Buddha, India is the land of the Great Teacher Sakyamuni Buddha. It is here that His ancient footprints are preserved, along with the eternal truth of liberation that we strive to follow step by step.

 1.2.                                         THE FIRST DAYS IN DELHI

I stand leaning against the window, watching the early morning mist blanket the courtyard of the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel. Tiny white lemon blossoms, no larger than a fingertip, flutter in the wind. These flowers, with their white petals and red

stamens, are fragile and tender; they nestle shyly in the palm of my hand. A few Indian students, their hair cascading over their shoulders, join me in gathering the fallen blooms. In India, it is customary to offer loose flowers or garlands to the Buddha and Hindu deities, rather than arranging them in vases with stems and leaves as we do in Vietnam.

Solemnly, I offer the plate of lemon blossoms to the Buddha and return to my study corner. My notebook lies open, and the past comes rushing back…

1.2.i.  Departure: A Heavy Farewell

On that day in 1995, as the sun rose high over Ho Chi Minh City, I headed to Tan Son Nhat Airport. My father, my aunt, family, monastic classmates, and nearly forty fellow Buddhists were there to see me off. The warmth of their presence moved me deeply. After final farewells and photographs, I pushed my luggage toward the departure gate.

“The beginning is always the hardest.” Yes, the first time as a young nun went to abroad, many challenges was ahead.

Cultural & Linguistic Shifts: Moving from a familiar environment to one where the customs, food, and language are entirely different requires a constant, exhausting level of mental and spiritual adaptation.

Before leaving, a senior monk had advised me to pack light, just the essentials and an English-Vietnamese dictionary, staying within the 30kg limit. He reminded me of the Buddhist verse:

One bowl feeds on a thousand households’ rice, A lonely body wanders ten thousand miles.

Seeking to resolve the matter of birth and death,

Teaching and transforming through the passing years.

 

Despite this ideal of monastic simplicity, I found myself with three large suitcases and two heavy shoulder bags, weighing over 100kg. I felt I needed everything, from an old scrubbing brush to a worn-out robe. Ultimately, I had to leave 30kg behind with my Buddhist sisters and still pay $350 in excess baggage fees. At 1:30 PM, Thai Airways flight TG681 took off for Bangkok.

1.2.ii.   Between the Clouds and the Earth

Being my first flight, I was anxious. My seat was by the window, offering a view of the vast sky. As the engines roared, I followed a friend’s advice: cotton balls in the ears to dampen the noise during takeoff, chewing gum to stabilize ear pressure, and two motion-sickness pills.

The airplane had climbed high. Looking down at the globe below, I saw only a blanket of white clouds, veiling all human activity. The clouds were a dreamy, silvery white. I felt as if I were floating, distant, hovering, and soaring into some strange, unknown realm.

 
  clip_image019.gif


Since childhood, I have been accustomed to living upon the earth; eating, living, and walking… with my heels always touching the sand and grit. The Śūraṅgama Sūtra2 teaches that

  • The Śūraṅgama Sūtra (The Sutra of the Foremost Shurangama at the Buddha’s Summit), Volume Six, translated from Chinese to Vietnamese and summarized by Thích Duy Lực, USA, 1990:

“If a Bhikshu (monk) does not wear silk, does not wear shoes or sandals made of sheepskin, and does not consume milk, cream, or butter... or anything derived from the bodies of living beings, then this Bhikshu is said to be truly liberated within this world. When their ancient debts are fully repaid, they shall not be reborn into the Three Realms.

Why is this? Because if one uses parts of the bodies of living beings for food or clothing, one must repay the debt to those beings. Just as those who eat grains grown from the earth find that their feet cannot leave the ground, so too, regarding those who neither eat nor wear anything from the bodies of living beings—I say such people are truly liberated.

What I have taught in this way is the teaching of the Buddha; any teaching that differs from this is the teaching of Mara (the demon).” https://thienphatgiao.wordpress.com/2013/04/04/kinh-thu-lang-nghiem-

as long as one consumes the five grains, their feet will remain bound to the earth. Now, suspended in the air like a bird without a hint of weight, flying amidst the vast cosmic sky, I found the experience truly enlightening.

The Radiance of the Night

As night gradually fell, the view became magnificent. Above, there were a thousand stars and a thousand eyes. I felt like a celestial being suspended in a shimmering realm of tiny, lovely, twinkling stars. Those stars and constellations felt so close that I imagined I could reach out and capture them in my hands.

I arrived in Bangkok at 3:10 PM and had a four-hour layover. The airport was modern and spotless, reflecting a strong sense of public discipline. However, sitting alone in that vast waiting room, surrounded by strangers, a profound sense of loneliness washed over me. I recalled a teaching from the late Most Venerable Huệ Hưng:

Forever a traveler in the misty dust of the world,

Each day passing is ten thousand miles further from home.

I realized then that “near” or “far” are just perceptions. If we live with wisdom, we see that all things, coming and going, meeting and parting, are governed by causes and conditions (nidana). If we touch our true nature, there is no separation, and thus, no reason for such heart-wrenching sorrow.

1.2.iii.    Arrival: The midnight rain welcomes the traveler from afar

At 8:00 PM, I boarded flight TG315 for Delhi. I was amazed to see that nearly 90% of the passengers, from the elderly to infants, requested vegetarian meals. In India, the Hindu tradition of vegetarianism is so prevalent that “Non-Veg” is the exception.

 
  clip_image020.gif

thichduyluc/

As night fell, the view became magical. Above, the stars were so close I felt I could reach out and pluck them. Below, Delhi sparkled like a velvet carpet encrusted with diamonds. We touched down at Indira Gandhi International Airport at 11:00 PM.

Confused by the time, I struck up my first conversation in English with a fellow traveler, only to realize that Vietnam is 90 minutes ahead of India.

As I pushed my cart through the arrivals gate, my anxiety vanished. I saw Bhikṣuṇī H.L. waving frantically, accompanied by Bhikṣuṇī Đ.A. and Bhikṣu G.T. A wide, relieved smile finally crossed my lips.

As we walked to the taxi, a light rain began to fall. “This is the first rain of the season,” one of them remarked. “Perhaps the earth is cooling itself to welcome you.” I smiled, touched by the auspicious welcome. As the taxi drove through the quiet, lamp- lit streets of New Delhi, the mist and the drizzle felt like a gentle embrace from my new home.

 1.3.   RENT ROOM IN KINGSWAY CAMP TO STUDY

The room in the house number 1555, Outram Lines, Kingsway Camp, Delhi-9, was my first residence in India. Along with Bhikṣuṇī s Đ.A., V.L., L.T., and H.L., we lived together in this flat happily, sharing a bond of sisterly love and creating many unforgettable memories.

Outram Lines is a middle-class residential area near the Kingsway Camp market, located northeast of the University of Delhi and about five kilometers away. Many Vietnamese monks and nuns rent rooms here because it is secure, close to the market, and within walking distance of the university. Most buildings

here are constructed in an old Indo-British architectural style, using large, solid stones designed to withstand the extremes of the local climate, from sub-zero winters to scorching summers reaching 45°C or 50°C.

The architecture and home decor are ornate and full of intricate patterns, contrasting with the simple, elegant lines found in Japan or Vietnam. This love for ornamentation extends to personal fashion. Indian women often wear vibrant, multi- colored clothing and an abundance of jewelry. It is common to see ten or more rings and necklaces in gold, red, and blue, with piercings not just in the earlobes but along the upper cartilage, and even gold hoops in the nostrils. Not stopping at wrists and fingers, they wear silver or gold anklets with tiny bells that chime “clink-clink” with every step. Occasionally, I would see a woman in a perfectly coordinated, single-toned suit, looking exceptionally sophisticated.

1.3.i.  Approaching the everyday life of the Indian people

India is a land of advanced technology, nuclear reactors, and smog-filled avenues, yet it simultaneously presents images of extreme poverty. Beside the sturdy buildings and polished cars of Outram Lines lie “slums,” clusters of low, cramped huts made of cardboard, burlap, and tarpaulin.

The people living there survive through manual labor:

  • Rickshaw pullers: Who pedal from the front while passengers sit
  • Laundry workers and domestic servants: A very common profession where people work by the hour or live with their
  • Small vendors: Selling vegetables, sweets, or paan (betel nut) with a total capital of less than 300 Rupees (approx. 100,000 VND).

The number of beggars in India felt, to me, like the highest in the world. They gather in long lines behind foreign tourists and pilgrims, congregating at temple gates or intersections. When the traffic light turns red, they approach luxury cars with outstretched hands. If they spot a foreigner, they are persistent; some might even grab your sleeve with dark, dusty hands until you give something. I also noticed poor women carrying small shrines of Lord Shiva (the supreme Hindu deity, revered as the Buddha is in Buddhist countries) decorated with marigolds and incense, inviting passersby to offer coins to the god, a practice I personally found culturally jarring, though it seemed a deep- rooted social reality.

1.3.ii. The Night Watchman

Most middle- and upper-class residential blocks have iron gates at the ends of the streets and night watchmen. In my section of Outram Lines, the guards were usually elderly men. They would stay awake all night, walking slowly and silently, their eyes scanning the darkness. The only sound was the rhythmic “tap-tap, tap-tap” of their wooden staves hitting the ground.

When I first arrived, a senior monk jokingly told me that residents had to take turns doing night watch duty once a month. I was horrified at the thought of having such a “duty”! I later learned he was teasing; in reality, every house in the neighborhood contributes a monthly fee to hire these guards for collective security.

Back in Vietnam, I used to nap near a window where pigeons nested, falling asleep to their gentle cooing. In India, I grew accustomed to the rhythmic “tap-tap” of the watchman. That steady sound, echoing from a distance in the middle of the night, became a comforting signal of safety, allowing me to sleep soundly.

On July 23, 1995, Bhikṣuṇī M.H. and I received news that

our application to the Post Graduate Women’s Hostel at the University of Delhi had been accepted. After one month and four days at Outram Lines, I packed my bags once more, bidding farewell to house 1555, the place that had sheltered and embraced me during my very first days on Indian soil.

 1.4.   POST GRADUATE WOMEN HOSTEL

The P.G. Women Hostel (Post Graduate Women Hostel) of the University of Delhi, located on Chhatra Marg, is home to over 350 female students. They come from every corner of India and across the globe, Vietnam, Thailand, Tibet, Nepal, Russia, China, Taiwan, Iran, and South Korea. These students are enrolled in M.A., M.Phil., and Ph.D. programs in fields ranging from Buddhist Studies and Philosophy to Law and Mathematics. With such a diverse array of ethnicities and languages, I felt like a wide-eyed child lost in a vast forest of exotic flowers.

 
  clip_image022.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (brown), a monk

and Bhikṣuṇī TN Nguyên Hương at P.G. Women’s Hostel.

 

1.4.i.  Life Behind the Gates

Student life here is carefully guarded by walls over two meters high. A strict curfew begins at 8:00 PM; leaving the gates after this hour is forbidden. To stay out overnight, one must present a “Night Out” book and obtain a signature from the administration. Visitors, male or female, must register their name, address, nationality, and the room number of the student they are visiting. We monastics often joked that visiting the hostel was as difficult as visiting a President!

In reality, these were standard administrative procedures. We had a common room for visitors; female guests were welcome all day, while male guests were restricted to the common room between 4:00 PM and 7:00 PM. When a guest arrived, the receptionist would announce the student’s name over the loudspeaker. During visiting hours, the canteen and lobby would buzz with activity and the constant blare of the intercom.

 
  clip_image024.jpg

Front gate of P.G. Women’s Hostel in 1995.

 

1.4.ii. The Rhythm of the Mess Hall

After dinner, we had a daily roll call. A mark of ‘P’ stood for Present, ‘L’ for Late (limited to eight times a month), and ‘N’ for Night Out.

Mealtime was the most vibrant part of the day. The staff managed to serve 400 students with incredible efficiency:

Breakfast: 7:30 – 8:30 AM

Lunch: 1:00 – 2:00 PM

Dinner: 8:00 – 9:00 PM

If you arrived late, the dining hall would be empty, and you’d stay hungry! When the dinner bell rang, much like the bell in a monastery, the sound of opening doors and shuffling slippers filled the hallways toward the Dining Hall. The “L-shaped” room buzzed with the “Bayas” (brothers) and “Ditis” (sisters) serving dal (a thick yellow lentil soup ubiquitous in India) and various curries. Within an hour, everything was gone.

Fortunately for us, since most Hindus are vegetarian, the hostel served primarily vegetarian food, potatoes, gourds, butter, and paneer. On Wednesday and Saturday nights, “Special Dinner” was served. Non-vegetarians had chicken, fish, or mutton (pork is never served here as it is considered unclean), while vegetarians enjoyed fresh mushrooms or stuffed bitter melon. All utensils were stainless steel; after eating, dishes were tossed into carts with a clatter that sounded like a bomb going off, hardly an environment for “mindful eating,” but full of life!

1.4.iii. Cultural Exchange and Yoga

While most Indian students ate with their hands, expertly mixing dal and rice without spilling a drop, students from Northeast India and East Asia often used spoons. In India and Sri Lanka, the hands are seen as the most natural and best tools for eating.

In my first year (1995-1996), I shared room D-8, then C-2, with an Indian student named Lal Zikpuii. A Sociology major from a Christian family in Mizoram, she was kind and graceful. We became fast friends. We would wake up early, around 6:00 AM, while the rest of the hostel was dreaming, and head to the nearby park to practice yoga.

 
  clip_image026.jpg

Right: Ven. Tâm Đức, Lal Zikpuii (the author’s roommate), Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, and Kavya amidst the vibrant flower gardens of Delhi University, March 1996.

 

The park was filled with elderly locals practicing various forms of exercise. One unique technique involved standing with arms wide, looking at the sky, and laughing loudly, “Ha ha ha!” for 15 minutes. Another involved chanting a long “Uuuuuu” to circulate fresh air into the lungs. These sessions left us feeling refreshed and optimistic.

The early morning in Delhi is magical, the city is veiled in mist, and the university campus, with its ancient trees, is silent and serene. Delhi is also a city of flowers; every March, the university hosts a Flower Show.

1.4.iv.A Lesson in Wisdom

Despite our different faiths, Zikpuii and I found harmony. I shared with her a story by the master Sathya Sai Baba about a king seeking the “best religion.” A sage showed the king several boats to cross the Ganges. The king rejected each one for minor flaws, such as a cracked plank, a missing nail, or peeling paint. The sage finally told him:

“Though they have flaws, any of these boats can carry you across the river. Likewise, any religion can lead you to the Supreme. Finding faults in different faiths is a waste of wisdom.”

From then on, Zikpuii would help me gather flowers for my Buddhist altar, and I would join her at the university chapel on Sundays.

In my small room, I set up a modest altar with a wooden statue of the Fasting Buddha, emaciated and showing every rib. This image of the Buddha’s extreme asceticism and unwavering determination deeply moved me. In India, such statues are meticulously carved from wood or stone, capturing the physical toll of his quest for truth. It served as a daily reminder of the strength of the human spirit and the power of persistence.

 
  clip_image027.jpg

CHAPTER 2

DEPARTMENT OF BUDDHIST STUDIES IN DELHI UNIVERSITY

I
 

n August 1995, after settling into my new life at the hostel for about two weeks, I officially began my studies. My first- year Master’s (M.A.) class in Buddhist Studies was a diverse gathering of both monastics and laypeople from India, South Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Tibet. Representing Vietnam were five of us: Bhikṣu ĐM, Bhikṣu TT,

Bhikṣu BC, Bhikṣuṇī HL, and me.

At that time, there were around 100 Buddhist Vietnamese monastics who joined this department.

2.1.   OVERVIEW OF THE MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) IN BUDDHIST STUDIES

2.1.i.   THE M.A. PROGRAM

The M.A. program at the Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi, is a two-year course comprising eight papers (modules), each worth 100 points.

  • Year 1 (Previous A.): Students take four compulsory

papers plus Part I of Paper V.

  • Year 2 (Final A.): Students complete Part II of Paper V and choose a specialization group (A, B, C, D, E, or F) consisting of three additional papers.
 
  clip_image029.jpg

University of Delhi in 1995.

 

Language of Examination: Students may choose to write their exams in English or Hindi (the most prominent of India’s 64 official languages).

The Compulsory Curriculum

 

Paper

Subject Matter

Paper I

Pali Language and Literature

Paper II

Sanskrit Language and Buddhist Sanskrit Litera- ture

Paper III

History of Buddhism (India and Abroad)

Paper IV

Buddhist Philosophy

 

 

Paper

Subject Matter

Paper V

Group A: Chinese Language & Buddhism OR Group B: Tibetan Language & Buddhism

Specialization Groups (Year 2)

After completing the foundational year, students dive into specific research areas:

  • Group A (Pali Literature): Focused on the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma
  • Group B (Sanskrit Buddhism): Focused on Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Tantric
  • Group C (History of Buddhism): Focused on international history, Buddhist art, architecture, and
  • Group D (Buddhist Philosophy): Focused on logic, epistemology, Madhyamika (Middle Way), and
  • Group E (Chinese Buddhism): Focused on the introduction and influence of Buddhism in China.
  • Group F (Tibetan Buddhism): Focused on Tibetan literature, philosophy, and

Detailed Breakdown of Year 1 (Part I) Paper I: Pali Language and Literature

Supervised by Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala and Dr. S. Pavagadhi.

  • Texts: Includes the Mahavagga, Patimokkha (Monastic Rules), Theragatha/Therigatha (Verses of Elders), and the Milindapanha (Questions of King Milinda).
  • Grammar: Studying the Kaccayana Vyakarana (Sandhi, Case endings, Tenses).
  • History: The origin of the Pali language and the history of

the three Great Buddhist Councils.

Paper II: Sanskrit Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. San Singh.

  • Texts: Major Mahayana Sūtras such as the Lotus Sūtra (Saddharmapundarika), Amitabha Sūtra, and Diamond Sūtra.
  • Linguistics: A study of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS), its nature, evolution, and how it differs from Classical
  • Historical Figures: The philosophy of great masters like

Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, and Santideva.

Paper III: History of Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. Dr. K.T.S. Sarao.

  • Indian History: The life of the Buddha, the formation of the Sangha, royal patronage (Kings Bimbisara, Ashoka, Kanishka), and the decline of Buddhism in India.
  • International Spread: The journey of the Dharma into Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand) and North Asia (Tibet, China, Korea, Japan).

Paper IV: Buddhist Philosophy

Supervised by Prof. Dr. I. N. Singh.

  • Foundations: The Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and Dependent
  • Comparative Thought: Buddhism in relation to other Indian schools like Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta.
  • Metaphysics: The denial of a permanent “Self” (Anatta) and a “Creator God,” and the concept of Momentariness (Ksanabhangavada).
  • Mahayana Concepts: The Three Bodies of Buddha (Trikaya), the Bodhisattva ideal, and Buddhist

The academic environment here is rigorous. Unlike the devotional atmosphere of a temple, the university treats Buddhism as a subject of critical historical and philosophical inquiry. This shift from “believing” to “analyzing” was a new and challenging experience for many of us.

PAPER V (A) – PART I: Chinese Language and Chinese Buddhism

Supervised by Dr. R. K. Rana. When forced to choose between Chinese and Tibetan, most Vietnamese students choose Chinese. This is because Chinese is more common in Vietnam, and Mahayana monastics are already familiar with Han characters (Hán tự) and scriptures, making it feel closer than Tibetan. This paper is worth 50 points for Part I (Year 1) and 50 points for Part II (Year 2).

Curriculum for Paper V (A):

  1. Origins and Evolution of Chinese Writing: Basic knowledge of grammar and classical syntax (10 points).
  2. 50 Buddhist Terms in Chinese: A specific list compiled by the Department (10 points).
  3. Modern Chinese: Taught by Anita Sharma (10 points).
  4. The Introduction of Buddhism into China: The mutual influence between Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Readings include essays from Confucius, Mouzi, Laozi, and Zhuangzi (10 points).
  5. The Diamond Sūtra (Jin Gang Bo Ruo Jing): Translation exercises from Chinese to English and vice versa (10 points).

clip_image031.jpg

Department of Buddhist Studies, Delhi University.

 

2.1.ii.   ACADEMIC LIFE AND THE HOLIDAYS

This was my first time attending classes with international students, providing a great opportunity to practice English. At first, following the lectures was difficult. The professors were excellent, and while we sat looking attentive and nodding, our eyes would glaze over when asked, “Do you have any questions?” We would stare into the distance as if we hadn’t heard! It took about three years of “stuffing” my ears with the language before I truly understood everything.

One unique aspect of studying in India is the seasonal breaks. We had an Autumn break from October 1st to 15th. In total, there are three major breaks:

  • Summer: April to July (due to extreme heat, often 36°C to 52°C).
  • Autumn: October 1st – 15th (the “High Season” for

pilgrimage).

  • Winter: January 10th – 25th (due to cold, often -2°C to 7°C).

India’s deep respect for religion is evident in its calendar. In 1998, out of 26 public holidays, 16 were religious festivals spanning Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and Buddhism.

 
  clip_image033.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

at the Buddhist Studies Department of Delhi University.

 

2.1.iii.  AUTUMN REFLECTIONS AND NATURE

During the autumn break, while my roommate Lal Zikpuii went home, I stayed back. The autumn air in Delhi, cool with a hazy grey sky, reminded me of the 15th day of the 7th lunar month in Vietnam. Sometimes, the melodious singing of an Indian student would trigger a wave of homesickness for my temple and family.

I often spent my afternoons studying in the park near the hostel. I would bring fried bread, apples, and peanuts to share with the local animals. In India, animals are incredibly bold because

most people are vegetarian. Their compassion creates a safe environment for monkeys, squirrels, and birds to roam freely. Even the cows are gentle and friendly; I often felt a silent, sacred connection with them just through our eyes.

2.1.iv.   NEW ROOM IN P.G.WOMEN’S HOSTEL

In my second year (Final M.A.), I moved into my own room, B-7. It was a dream location, facing a garden with coconut palms, a mango tree, and a Java plum (Trâm) tree.

My Personal Sanctuary:

  • The Kitchen: I set up a small stove under the coconut tree.
  • The Hammock: I hung a Vietnamese-style hammock between two palms. This was a curiosity for the Indian students, as they usually only use hammocks for infants. They often asked to try it, but without the “technique” of sitting in the center, they would often tumble out, leading to rounds of laughter.
  • The Java Plum Harvest: After a storm, the ground would be covered in purple We would spread a tarp and shake the branches, then sit together dipping the sour, astringent fruit into salt until our tongues turned purple!

I spent almost all my time outdoors on that hammock, eating, napping, and studying late into the night. The gentle rhythm of the hammock kept me awake for my exams, unlike the way it lulls babies to sleep. This peaceful corner became so famous that my Indian friends would bring cameras to take photos of my unique “Vietnamese study base.”

2.1.v. FINAL YEAR CURRICULUM

On August 15, 1996, the final year began. Students choose one specialization from six groups (A through F) and continue with their chosen language requirement (Paper V):

  • Option A: Chinese Language and Buddhism
  • Option B: Tibetan Language and Buddhism

As we move into the Final M.A. (Year 2) at the University of Delhi, the curriculum shifts from foundational history and languages to high-level specialization. Depending on your chosen path, you engage deeply with the philosophical systems and literary canons of various Buddhist traditions.

2.1.vi.   SPECIALIZATION GROUPS AND CORE PAPERS

Students must continue with Paper V (the language requirement) and choose one Specialization Group (A through F). Each group consists of three papers (VI, VII, and VIII).

OUTLINE OF THE BUDDHIST POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM (M.A.)

Compulsory Modules

  1. Paper I: Pali Language and Literature
  2. Paper II: Sanskrit Literature and Buddhist Sanskrit
  3. Paper III: History of Buddhism in India and Abroad
  4. Paper IV: Buddhist Philosophy
  5. Paper V ‘A’ Part I & II: Chinese Language and Chinese Buddhism

OR Paper V ‘B’ Part I & II: Tibetan Language and Tibetan Buddhism

 
  clip_image034.gif

Elective Modules

  • Group A: Pali Literature

»   Paper VI: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, History, and Pali Commentaries

»   Paper VII: Early Abhidhamma

»   Paper VIII: Later Abhidhamma

•         Group B: Sanskrit Buddhism

»   Paper VI: Mahasamghika, Sthaviravada, and Sarvastivada

»   Paper VII: Mahayana Buddhism

»   Paper VIII: Mahayana, Tantrayana, and Vajrayana

•         Group C: History of Buddhism

»   Paper VI: History of Buddhism Outside India

»   Paper VII: Comparative Study of Buddhist Iconography, Architecture, and Art in India and Abroad

»   Paper   VIII:    Study   of    Buddhist   Topography   and Inscriptions

•         Group D: Buddhist Philosophy

»   Paper VI: Early Buddhist Philosophy, Abhidhamma, and Sarvastivada

»   Paper VII: Madhyamika or Yogacara

»   Paper VIII: Principles of Language, Logic, and Buddhist Epistemology

•         Group E: Chinese Buddhism

»   Paper VI: The Chinese Buddhist Sangha

»   Paper VII: The Introduction of Buddhism into China

»   Paper VIII: The Influence of Buddhism in China

•         Group F: Tibetan Buddhism

»   Paper VI: Tibetan Language and Literature

»   Paper VII: Buddhist Logic and Philosophy

»   Paper VIII: Esoteric Buddhism (Tantric Buddhism)

 
  clip_image035.gif

M.A. CURRICULUM (PART I – FIRST YEAR) Paper I: Pali Language and Literature

Supervised by Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala (Indian Theravada monk and Head of Department since 1996) and Dr. S. Pavagadhi.

 

 
  clip_image037.jpg

 

The Head of the Buddhist Studies Department, Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala (second from right),

and students on a field trip to a Tibetan Temple.

 

1)  Scriptural Texts (50 points):

  • Mahavagga (Great Chapter), Mahakhandhaka
  • Patimokkha (Code of Discipline)
  • Udana (Inspired Utterances)
  • Theragatha (Verses of the Elder Monks)
  • Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns)
  • Milindapañha (Questions of King Milinda)

2)  Pali Grammar and Composition:

  • Grammar (20 points): Kaccayana Vyakarana (Sandhi, Karaka, Samasa, Tense, Dhatugana, )
  • Composition (10 points): Translation (Pali to English/ Hindi and vice-versa); simple sentence
  • History of Pali (20 points): Position of Pali in the Indo- Aryan family; origin, development, and basic characteristics; overview of the three Buddhist Councils; the Tipitaka (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma) and Non-canonical texts.
 
  clip_image038.gif

Paper II: Sanskrit Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. San Singh.

  • A) Sanskrit Scriptural Texts (60 points):   Lotus Sutra, Sukhavativyuha Sutra, Diamond Sutra, Srighanacarasangraha, and
  • B) Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) Linguistics (20 points): Position in the Indo-European family; nature of hybridization; phonological changes and BHS
  • C) History of Sanskrit Buddhism (20 points): Introduction of Sanskrit into Buddhism; scriptures of the Mahasamghika and Sarvastivada; Avadana Jataka; Philosophy of great masters (Nagarjuna, Dignaga, Asanga, Vasubandhu, etc.); Mahayana and
 
  clip_image035.gif

Paper III: History of Buddhism in India and Abroad

Supervised by Prof. Dr KTS. Sarao.

 

  • A) Historical Sources (20 points): Literature, archaeology, and travelogues.
  • B) Buddhism in India (20 points): Life of the Buddha; Sangha establishment; Royal patronage (Bimbisara, Kanishka, ); Gupta and Pala periods.
  • C) Southeast Asian Expansion (20 points): Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indochina (Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos).
  • D) North Asian Expansion (20 points): Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan, and South

•         E) Buddhist Art and Architecture (20 points).

 

 
  clip_image034.gif

Paper IV: Buddhist Philosophy

Supervised by Prof. Dr. I. N. Singh.

  1. General Concepts: Nature of Metaphysics (Tattva- mimamsa)3; difference between philosophy, science, and Pre-Buddhist Indian philosophy (Vedas and Upanishads); concepts of Karma, Yoga4, and Nirvana.
 
  clip_image039.gif

  • Schools and Doctrines: Ajivikas5 and other systems (Carvaka, Jaina, Samkhya, Vedanta, ). Basic doctrines:
  • Tattva: Reality (Truth) and Mimamsa: The Mimamsa school (The school of investigation or manifestation according to conditions).
  • Yoga School: One of the six Vedic schools established around the 1st It advocates the practice of Yoga for liberation. The founder was Sage Patanjali, and the fundamental text is the Yoga Sutra. The term translates to “union” or “correspondence”—meaning correspondence with the faculties, environment, marks, principles, and cause-and-effect, etc. The Esoteric sect (Vajrayana) is also called the Yogachara School, and the Vijnanavada (Yogacara) school in India is referred to by this name as well.
  • Ajivika: A sect prevalent during the Buddha’s (An account mentions that when Venerable Mahakashyapa and 500 disciples arrived at the town of Kushinagar, they met an ascetic of the Ajivika sect who informed them that the Buddha had entered Parinirvana)

Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Dependent Origination. Denial of Self (Anatta) and God; Momentariness (Ksanabhangavada).

  1. Sects: Differences between Mahayana and Theravada; Sarvastivada, Vaibhasika,6 Sautrantika7, Madhyamika, Vedanta8 and Buddha-Darsana
  2. Ideals and Perfections: Bodhisattva, Arhat, and Six Perfections (Paramitas); Trikaya (Three Bodies of Buddha); Bodhicitta.
  3. Logic and Epistemology: General introduction to Buddhist logic, dialectics, and theories of language.

1.  Paper V: Language Specialization (Part II)

 
  clip_image040.gif

  • Option A: Chinese Buddhism: Focuses on the history of Buddhism from the 1st to 10th centuries, the modern
  • Vaisheshika (The School of Particularity): Also known as the School of Excellence or Pluralistic Realism. One of the six schools founded around the 1st century, it utilizes six categories—substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence—to explain phenomena. The founder was Sage Kanada, and the primary text is the Vaisheshika
  • Samkhya (The Enumeration School): Known by various names such as the School of Dualistic Evolution. It is a Brahminical school that operated in India before the Buddha’s birth. It relies on two primary principles—Purusha (Pure Spirit) and Prakriti (Root Matter)—to explain the reality of the The founder was Sage Kapila, and the fundamental text is the Samkhya Karika. It also refers to the Samkhya discourse within the Vedas.
  • The Vedanta school; the position and relationship of the Buddhist View (Buddha-Darsana) with the aforementioned perspectives.
  • Darśana (Sanskrit) / Dassana (Pali): Translates to “View” or “Vision.” In this context, it refers to the Five Views (Five types of wrong or limited perception):
  1. Satkayadrishti: View of a self/body.
  2. Antagrahadrishti: Extreme views (eternalism or nihilism).
  • Mithyadrishti: False/wrong
  1. Drishtiparamarsha: Attachment to views.
  2. Shilavrataparamarsha: Attachment to mere rites and

Chinese language, and the translation methodology used for the Lotus Sūtra.

  • Option B: Tibetan Buddhism: Focuses on the Avadana Kalpalata, Nagarjuna’s Mulamadhyamika Karika (Middle Way), and Yogacara texts like the Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only.
 
  clip_image042.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and three Sri Lankan monks in front of the Art Faculty Library, Delhi University, 1997.

 

 
  clip_image043.gif

2.  Group A: Pali Buddhism

Supervised by Ven. Dr. B. Satyapala and Dr. S. Pavagadgi. This track is for those specializing in the Theravada tradition and the Pali Canon.

 
  clip_image019.gif


Paper VI (Sutta & Vinaya): Vinaya Pitaka (The Basket of Discipline): Mahavagga (The Great Chapter, one of the divisions of the Vinaya Pitaka), Uposatha Khandhaka (The Chapter on the Observance Day, the second part of the Vinaya Pitaka)10, and

  • Khandhaka (Pali): The Khandhaka scriptures. A collection of monastic codes that prescribe various rituals and ceremonies for the Sangha community. “Uposatha” refers to the ritual of confession and recitation of the precepts

Vassupanayika Khandhaka (The Chapter on Entering the Rainy Season Retreat);

In-depth study of the Mahavagga (monastic rules) and major Nikayas (Long, Middle, and Connected Discourses).

Paper VII (Early Abhidhamma): Analysis of the Dhammasangani (Enumeration of Phenomena) and the Patthana (Conditional Relations).

Paper VIII (Late Abhidhamma): Study of post-canonical works like the Abhidhammattha-sangaha (Compendium of Philosophy) and Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification).

 
  clip_image034.gif

3.  Group B: Sanskrit Buddhist Literature

Supervised by Prof. S. Singh. Focuses on the texts of the Mahasanghika, Sarvastivada, and Mahayana schools preserved in Sanskrit.

  • Paper VI: Study of the Mahavastu (The Great Event), Jnanaprasthana Sastra (The Treatise on the Foundation of Knowledge)11, Avadana-shataka (The Hundred Legends)12, and the story of Prince Nanda and his wife Sundari (Saundarananda).
  • Paper VII: Advanced Mahayana Sūtras including the
 
  clip_image044.gif


Dashabhumika (Ten Stages)13 and the Lankavatara Sūtra.

(Poṣadha).

  • Jnana: Wisdom (Knowledge); Prasthana: Foundation (Source/Ground); Sastra: Treatise (Commentary).
  • Avadāna-shataka (Sanskrit): The “Sutra of the Collected Hundred Legends,” consisting of 100 discourses taught by the Buddha regarding parables of causes and conditions, and the past causes and future effects of his disciples. It is a scripture belonging to the Vaipulya (Extended)
  • Śikṣāsamuccaya (Sanskrit): The “Compendium of Training” (or “Compendium of Bodhisattva Trainings”), also known as the Collection of It was authored by the venerable Shantideva.
  • Paper VIII: Exploration of Vajrayana and Tantra, including Lotus Sutra (Saddharma), Lankavatara Sutra, Anuttarayoga Tantra (Hevajra Tantra, Chapter 1), Dohacaraksa14, and Dohakosa
 
  clip_image045.gif

4.  Group C: Buddhist History & Archaeology

Supervised by Prof. Dr. K.T.S. Sarao.

  • Paper VI: Comparative history of Buddhism in East Asia (China, Vietnam, Japan) and Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma).
  • Paper VII: Art and Architecture, focusing on the evolution of the Stupa and iconography in schools like Mathura and Sārnāth.
  • Paper VIII (Epigraphy): Learning to read Brahmi script and Ashokan inscriptions, along with the historical geography of holy sites like Nālandā, Bodh Gaya, and
 
  clip_image046.gif

5.  Group D: Buddhist Philosophy

Supervised by Prof. Dr. I. N. Singh. This is widely considered the most intellectually rigorous track, focusing on logic and metaphysics.

  • Paper VI (Abhidharma): A technical analysis of Dharmas (phenomena), Citta (mind), and the 18 Dhatus (elements) across the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika
  • Sasrava (Tainted/With Outflows), Anasrava (Untainted/ Without Outflows), Unconditioned States (Asankhata): Pratisankhya-nirodha (Analytical Cessation/Cessation
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Doha: Song of Realization (Song of Enlightenment); Kosa: Treasury (Abhidharmakośa).

through    Deliberation)15,   Apratisankhya-nirodha    (Non- analytical Cessation/Cessation not through Deliberation).16

The Philosophy of the Vaibhashika School17 and the Sautrantika School.18

•         Paper VII (Madhyamika & Yogacara):

  • Madhyamika: The study of Emptiness (Sunyata) and Dependent
  • Yogacara: The “Three Transformations of Consciousness,” focusing on the Alaya-vijnana (Store- house consciousness).
 
  clip_image016.gif

  • Paper VIII (Logic & Epistemology): General introduction to Buddhist Logic (Pramana), focusing on the revolutionary theories of Dignaga and Dharmakirti regarding perception and Dignaga’s perspectives on Epistemology and Logic (Nyaya).19
  • Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (Sanskrit): Analytical Cessation (Cessation through Deliberation).

Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha-saṃskṛta: A state of cessation or extinction attained through the power of discernment and selection afforded by Right Wisdom (Prajna).

  • Apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (Sanskrit): Non-analytical Cessation (Cessation not through Deliberation).

A state of cessation or extinction that is not achieved through the power of selection by Right Wisdom, but rather manifests simply due to the permanent absence of the necessary conditions for a phenomenon to arise.

  • Vaibhashika (S): The “Commentary”

Also known as the Abhidharma-vaibhashika; a major school belonging to the Sthaviravada (Elder) tradition that adheres to the Mahavibhasha (Great Commentary).

  • Sautrantika (S): The “Sutra-Reference”

Also called the Sankrantivada (School of Transfer). One of the eleven sub- sects of the Sthaviravada, founded by the venerable Kumaralabdha. They emphasize the authority of the Sutras over the Abhidharma.

  • Nyāya (Sanskrit): The Logic School (Nyaya School).
  1. A Brahminical philosophical school established around the 2nd century BCE (though it flourished through later centuries).
  2. One of the four aspects (or characteristics) of the Truth of the Path (Marga-

Summary Table: Specialization Focus

Group

Primary Focus

Key Concepts

A (Pali)

Theravada Canon

Vinaya, Abhidhamma, Path of Purification

B (Sanskrit)

Mahayana & Tantra

Lotus Sūtra, Vajrayana, Bodhisattva Path

C (History)

Archaeology & Art

Brahmi Script, Stupa Archi- tecture, Regional History

D (Philoso- phy)

Logic & Meta- physics

Emptiness, Conscious- ness-Only, Epistemology

The completion of these papers, combined with the language requirement, marks the culmination of the Master’s degree, preparing the student for advanced research at the M.Phil. or Ph.D. level.

Specialization: Groups E and F (The Second Year)

In the final year of the Master’s program, students choosing Group E or F delve into the specific monastic, philosophical, and cultural landscapes of China and Tibet.

Group E: Chinese Buddhism

Supervised by Dr. R. K. Rana. This track explores how Buddhism transformed from an Indian import into a core pillar of Chinese civilization.

Paper VI: The Chinese Buddhist Sangha: Covers the formation of the monastic community and the lives of legendary monk-translators like Kumarajiva, Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing. It also examines the relationship between the Church and State.

Paper VII: Introduction of Buddhism to China: A deep dive into specific schools such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Pure Land.

 
  clip_image048.gif

satya): Path, Appropriate, Practice, and Final Liberation.

It includes the study of the Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only

and the Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch Huineng.

Paper VIII: Influence of Buddhist Culture: Focuses on Buddhist themes in Chinese literature (poetry of Wang Wei and Bai Juyi), socio-economic impacts, and the magnificent art of the cave temples at Dunhuang, Longmen, and Yungang.

 
  clip_image034.gif

Group F: Tibetan Buddhism

Supervised by Prof. Dr. Negi. This group focuses on the preservation of Indian logic and the unique development of Vajrayana in the Himalayas.

  • Paper VI: Tibetan Language and Literature: Includes the study of “Elegant Sayings” by Sakya Pandita and the history of the Sakya school founded in the 12th
  • Paper VII: Philosophy and Logic: Analyzes Nagarjuna’s Ratnavali (Precious Garland) and Dignaga’s Nyaya Pravesa, a foundational text on Buddhist logic.
  • Paper VIII: Tantric Buddhism: An introduction to the complex systems of Tantra, specifically the Hevajra Tantra and the Highest Yoga
 
  clip_image038.gif

Advancing to Higher Research: M.Phil. and Ph.D.

On October 16, 1997, I reached a significant milestone: receiving my admission to the Ph.D. program at the University of Delhi.

The Academic Ladder

The University of Delhi generally follows a strict hierarchy for the Faculty of Arts:

M.A. (Master of Arts): Must achieve a “First Class” (55% or

higher) to potentially skip the next step.

  1. Phil. (Master of Philosophy / “Phó Tiến sĩ”): A bridge program consisting of coursework and a minor thesis.
  2. D. (Doctor of Philosophy): The final research degree.

I was fortunate to be admitted directly to the Ph.D. without having to complete the M.Phil. This “direct entry” is usually reserved for students with high marks in their M.A. However, as more students (including over 40 Vietnamese monastics by 1999) began applying, the department started requiring the M.Phil. for almost everyone due to a shortage of research supervisors. 20

Structure of Research Degrees

The structure for both M.Phil. and Ph.D. students in the early stages is quite similar:

  • Part I (The Coursework): Both Phil. and Ph.D. candidates must pass three core papers. These exams are often held together.

•         Part II (The Research):

  • For Phil., this involves two more papers or a short dissertation.
  • For a D., this is the multi-year process of writing the full doctoral thesis under a supervisor.

During this time, I also took a Certificate Course in Modern Chinese to supplement my research, taking advantage of the diverse language departments available at the university. While the fees were initially very low (around 1,000 Rupees), they were later increased significantly for international students as the university adjusted its policies.

  • Extracts from Ordinance VI-B and Rules and Regulations relating to the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Delhi University, Delhi 110007, pages 1–2.

 2.2.   THE M.PHIL. (MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY) CURRICULUM

The M.Phil. program at the University of Delhi is a rigorous two-year research degree that serves as a critical bridge between a Master’s degree (M.A.) and a Doctorate (Ph.D.). It is divided into two parts: Coursework (Part I) and Research (Part II).

PART I: Coursework

This phase consists of three core papers designed to provide both a comprehensive overview of Buddhist studies and the technical skills required for advanced academic research.

PAPER I: General Survey of Buddhism in India and Abroad (100 points)

This paper ensures that researchers have a multidisciplinary foundation. It is divided into three key sections:

  • Section A (Philology): Focuses on the primary languages of the Buddhist canon.
    • Pali: Grammar, language structure, and a survey of Sutta and post-canonical literature.
    • Sanskrit: The evolution of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) and a survey of Sūtra and Abhidharma

•         Section B (History and Philosophy):

  • History: The origin of Buddhism, the date of the Buddha’s Parinirvana, the role of women and caste, and the decline and modern revival (Neo-Buddhism) in
  • Philosophy: Basic doctrines, major philosophical schools, Buddhist logic, and key concepts like the Paramitas and the Tathagata.
  • Section C (Regional Buddhism): * China: Interaction with

Confucianism and Taoism, Chinese Buddhist literature, and the development of local sects.

Tibet: The introduction of the Dharma, the role of great Masters (Acharyas), and Himalayan Buddhist traditions.

PAPER II: Research Methodology (100 points)

This is perhaps the most vital paper for a future scholar, focusing on the “how” of academic inquiry. It covers:

  • Methods of Investigation: Library research, historical methods, statistical analysis, and field-work techniques (interviews, questionnaires, and observation).
  • Scientific Rigor: Characteristics of scientific research, verification, accumulation of data, and maintaining objectivity while avoiding personal bias and prejudice.
  • The Research Process: How to choose a topic, formulate a hypothesis, define variables, and structure a formal academic report (including proper citations and references).
  • Ethics: The moral responsibility of the scientist toward their subjects and humanity as a whole.

clip_image050.jpg

PAPER III: Practical Academic Writing (100 points)

  • Book Review (50 points): The student must choose a scholarly book and write a critical
  • Survey Article (50 points): A minor essay (20–30 pages) on a topic of the student’s choice, demonstrating their ability to synthesize existing research.
 
  clip_image045.gif

PART II: The Research Thesis

Once the student passes the rigorous exams of Part I, they move on to the research phase.

PAPER IV: The Dissertation (100 points)

 

The student writes a formal Dissertation (approximately 100 pages). Unlike a Ph.D. thesis, which must provide an original contribution to the field, the M.Phil. dissertation focuses on demonstrating a mastery of research methods and a deep understanding of a specific area of study.

PAPER V: Viva-voce (100 points)

The final step is an Oral Defense. The student must present their dissertation before a board of examiners and answer questions to prove their expertise and the validity of their research.

 
  clip_image045.gif

Summary Table: M.Phil. Structure

 

Phase

Component

Requirement

Part I

Paper I

Comprehensive Exam (History, Philosophy, Language)
 

Paper II

Exam on Research Methodology & Ethics
 

Paper III

Book Review and Survey Article

Part II

Paper IV

100-page Research Dissertation
 

Paper V

Viva-Voce (Oral Defense)

This structured approach ensures that when a student finally enters a Ph.D. program, they are not just “well-read,” but are trained researchers capable of handling complex data and maintaining academic integrity.

 
  clip_image045.gif

 2.3.   DOCTORAL (Ph.D.) PROGRAM

2.3.i.

Part I

In the academic system of India, particularly during the period you resided there, the path to a Doctorate often required passing several rigorous preliminary examinations. These were commonly referred to as Paper I, II, and III, which were functionally equivalent to the requirements for a Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) or what was then known as a Pre-PhD (Phó Tiến sĩ) qualification.

Part II

The process of completing a PhD in India is a rigorous journey, requiring the submission of a substantial Thesis (usually exceeding 200 pages) followed by a Viva-Voce (oral defense).

As I reflect on my own academic path, I would like to intro duce several significant Buddhist research works authored by Vietnamese masters in India. India is the sacred land that gave birth to the Buddha; today, following in His footsteps, monastics and lay followers from around the world, especially Vietnamese monks and nuns, return here to research the Dhamma. They combine the Buddha’s message of liberation with modern scientific knowledge to serve both the spiritual and secular worlds, contributing to the “Dharma Jewel” (the treasury of teachings) globally.

clip_image052.jpg

The Art Faculty Library,

where we often sit to conduct our research.

 

2.3.ii.NOTABLE VIETNAMESE PHD DISSERTATIONS IN INDIA

  1. Most Thích Minh Châu (1961)
  • Thesis: The Chinese Madhyama Agama and the Pali Majjhima Nikaya: A Comparative Study
  • Institution: Nālandā University
  • Significance: This masterpiece compares the Chinese Agamas with the Pali Ven. Thích Minh Châu was a pioneer who translated the Pali Canon into Vietnamese and founded the Van Hanh Buddhist University. His thesis has been translated into Vietnamese by the late Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Trí Hải.

2.  Most Ven. Thích Huyền Vi (1972)

  • Thesis: A Critical Study of the Life and Work of Sāriputta

Thera

  • Institution: Nālandā University
  • Significance: A deep exploration of the life of the Buddha’s chief disciple, Sariputta. Ven. Thích Huyền Vi was the Supreme Patriarch of the Linh Son Buddhist Congregation in France, managing over 50 temples worldwide.

3.  Most Ven. Thích Thiện Châu (1990s)

  • Publication: The Literature of the Personalists (Pudgalavādins) of Early Buddhism
  • Background: Having graduated with degrees in Pali and English from Nālandā in the 1960s, his profound research on the “Personalist” school of early Buddhism was published by the prestigious Motilal Banarsidass in Delhi (1996).

4.  Most Ven. Thích Chơn Thiện (1996)

  • Thesis: A Critical Study of the Personality Theory revealed through Paticcasamuppada (On the basis of Pacica Nikaya)
  • Institution: University of Delhi
  • Significance: This work analyzes the Buddhist theory of personality through the lens of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada). Thích Chơn Thiện was instrumental in opening the door for Vietnamese monastics to pursue self-funded studies at the University of Delhi, leading to the thriving community of over 200 Vietnamese students currently studying there.
 
  clip_image045.gif

It is heartening to see this intellectual lineage continue. These works represent not just academic achievement, but a bridge between ancient Indian wisdom and modern Vietnamese Buddhist scholarship.

  1. “Thiền of Vietnamese Buddhism under Trần Dynastry” (1997) và “Phylosophy of the Saddharmapundarika Sūtra: A Conceptual and Doctrial Analysis” (2003) - TĐ.
  1. “A Critical study of the concept of Dhamma as depicted in the Pali Tripitaka” - Bhikṣuṇī LP (1995).21
  2. “A Comparative Study of the Rules for the Bhikṣus and Bodhisattvas as practised in Theravàda and Màhàyana traditions with special reference to Pali Bhikṣu Pàtimokkha sutta and Chinese Brahma-jàla Bodhisattva Pràtimoksa Sūtra” - Bhikṣu GN (1996).
  3. “God, Reincarnation and Ahimsa: A Comparative Study of the Principal Upanisads and the Mahayana Sūtras” - Ven. HC (1996).
  4. “Elitism and the Decline of the Buddhism: A critical

analysis” – Ven. HT (Vietnamesen in Deutschland) (1996).

  1. “The concept of Equality in Buddhism: A Comparative Study of the Pali Canon and the Mahayana Sūtras” - Bhikṣu CM (1996).
  2. “Mettà, Karunà and Ahimsà: A Comparative Study of the Pali PancaNikàyas and the Mahàyàna Sùtras” - Bhikṣu KT (1996).
  3. “A Study of the Concept of Citta as depicted in the Pali Tipitaka”- Bhikṣu MT (1996).
  4. “A Study of the Buddhist View of the World and Man as depicted in the Abhidharmakosa of Vasubandhu” - Bhikṣu ĐV (1996).
  5. “An Analytical Study of the nature’s status of women in the Teachings of Buddha” - Bhikṣuni MH (1996).
  6. “A Critical study of the Puggla as depicted in the Panca Nikaya”- Bhikṣuni TV (1996).
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • From this point forward, the timeline is calculated starting from the year the University Admission was received (not from the time the graduation thesis was submitted).
  1. “The Buddha’s Methodology of Teaching: An Analytical

Study”- Bhikṣuni VL (1996).

  1. “Egalitarianism in Pali Buddhism”- Bhikṣuni HL (1996).
  2. “The Impact of Buddhism upon Vietnamese Literature”- female lay Buddhist LTT (1996).
  3. “An Analytical study of the chief Characteristics of the Buddha‘s Methology of Education as reflected in the Pali Sūtra Pitaka”- Bhikṣu TM (1997).
  4. “A Critical Study of the Concept and Relevance of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva” - Bhikṣu VT (1997).
  5. “AComparative Study of the Doctrine of Saddharmapundrica Sūtra and Pali Nikayas” - Bhikṣu NĐ (1997).
  6. “A Critical study of the Lankavatara Sūtra with Special

reference to Madhyama Agama” - Bhikṣu GT (1997)

  1. “Method of Cariya to attain Enlightenment in the Pali Nikayas and Mahayana Sūtras” - Bhikṣuni HL (1997).“An Analytical study of Similes and metaphors in Pali Tipitaka”

- Bhikṣu LT (1997).

  1. “The concepts of Boddhisattva and Sùnyatà in the Pali Nikàyas and the Mahàyàna sùtras: An Analysis” (1997) và “The Various Dimensions of Buddhism in Different Countries: A Philosophical Study” (2005) -Author Bhikṣuni TN Giới Hương.
  2. “An Analytical Study of the Buddhist Doctrine in the Milindapanho” - Bhikṣu BC (1998).
  3. “Critical Evaluation the Attitude of Buddha to Ecology in the Pitaka and the Nikaya” - Bhikṣu TT (1998).
  4. “The Concept   of    Man   in   Saddharniapundanaka:   A Philosophical Study” - Bhikṣu TQ (1998).
  1. “An Investigation into the Central Philosophy of the Huayan Sūtra” - Bhikṣu GT (1998).
  2. “The Concept of Sunyata in Prajnaparamita Sūtras and Pali Nikayas” - Bhikṣuni ĐA (1998).
  3. “A Study of Budhist concepts of Environment in the Nikayas”

- Bhikṣuni MT (1998).

  1. “Tathagata and Patriachal Meditation: An Analytial Study in the Nikayas and Mahayana Sūtras” - Bhikṣuni TL (1998).
  2. “The Concept of Skillful Means in the Saddharma-pundarika Sūtra: An Analysis” - Bhikṣu NT (1998).

On September 12, 1997, I began my studies for both the M. Phil (Master of Philosophy) and Ph.D. degrees. Since the written examinations for both programs were identical, the classes were conducted together. The primary difference was that while Ph.D. students wrote a full dissertation, M. Phil students were required to complete a book review (briefly summarizing a self- selected book) and a dissertation (an essay on a chosen topic of approximately 100 pages).

On February 26, 2002, after completing my 398-page doctoral thesis, I submitted it to the university. On February 18, 2003, I sat for my oral defense (viva-voce), and on February 22, 2003, together with Ven. TQ, Ven. TĐ, Sister MH, Sister HL, Sister VL, and Sister HL, we donned our red academic regalia to attend the Ph.D. graduation ceremony. Many monks and nuns from the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th cohorts of the Advanced School of Buddhist Studies in Ho Chi Minh City brought fresh flowers and cards to congratulate us on successfully completing our studies in India. It was a beautiful day; spring had arrived in Delhi, and colorful flowers were blooming everywhere as if sharing in our joy.

 
  clip_image053.jpg

CHAPTER 3

PILGRIMAGE TO THE HOLY SITES

 3.1.                                                                           BODH GAYA

O
 

ctober 1, 1996. Another autumn arrived. A group of us, including Bhikṣus Giác Ngôn, Bửu Chánh, and Đồng Mẫn; Bhikṣuṇī Huệ Liên, Vân Liên, Hằng Liên, and myself, along with several lay devotees, planned a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya. We invited Ven. Hạnh Tấn to be our group leader, with Ven. Bửu

Chánh as deputy and I as the treasurer.

Autumn is the ideal season for pilgrimage in India; the weather is mild, requiring neither heavy winter gear nor enduring the blistering summer heat. For every child of the Buddha, visiting the holy sites is a dream, like returning to one’s ancestral home or visiting the birthplace of one’s master.

We departed Delhi by train and arrived early on October 2nd. We stayed at Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu, the first Vietnamese temple in India, founded by Ven. Huyền Diệu. Our 10-day itinerary was so packed that we moved like a commando unit! At each site, we hurriedly donned our robes, chanted a short liturgy, prostrated, snapped a few quick photos, and shouldered our backpacks to move to the next location. Our spiritual reflections were often cut short by our leaders’ urgent calls to stay on schedule.

clip_image055.jpg

Ni sinh TN Giới Hương (đứng ngoài cùng bên phải) cùng quý thầy cô cùng lớp tại Bảo tháp Đại Giác

(Mahabodhi Complex), Bồ Đề Đạo Tràng, bang Bihar, Ấn Độ, vào ngày 02 tháng 10 năm 1996.

 

i. Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu: A Piece of Home

Waking up early at the temple, I stood on the balcony to breathe in the misty morning air. Two Burmese monks, who managed the temple while Ven. Huyền Diệu was in France or overseeing construction in Lumbini, and was already strolling in the garden.

The temple felt unmistakably Vietnamese. Rows of purple bachelor’s buttons, a common flower in Vietnam, lined the pebble paths. From the curved roof of the main hall to the vegetable patches of water spinach (rau muống) and jute (rau đay) in the garden, it was a “miniature Vietnam” tucked away in the heart of India.

ii. The Great Enlightenment Site

After breakfast, we headed to the main archaeological site. Bodh Gaya is located in the state of Bihar, about 10 km from

Gaya station and 1,000 km from Delhi.

The focal point is the Mahabodhi Temple (Great Enlightenment Tower), housing a gilded stone statue of the Buddha in meditation. Behind the tower stands the Bodhi Tree, a lush descendant of the original tree under which Siddhartha Gautama sat for 49 days and achieved Enlightenment in 528 BCE. To the left is the Cankamana (Jeweled Cloister), where stone lotuses mark the spots where flowers supposedly sprang up to support the Buddha’s feet during his walking meditation.

 3.2.  THE JOURNEY OF THE BUDDHA: A HISTORICAL RETROSPECT

Standing at this sacred spot, one cannot help but recall the history of Shakyamuni Buddha:

  1. Birth and Early Life: Born as Prince Siddhartha Gautama in 624 BCE in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal). He was the son of King Suddhodana and Queen
  • The Great Renunciation: Despite a life of luxury and a marriage to Princess Yasodhara, the sight of old age, sickness, and death moved him to seek a solution to human At age 29, shortly after the birth of his son Rahula, he left the palace to become an ascetic.
  • The Search: He studied under renowned teachers like Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, mastering their meditative states but finding they did not lead to ultimate
  • Asceticism: For six years, he practiced extreme self- mortification in the Uruvela forest with five He became so emaciated that he resembled a living skeleton.
  • The Middle Way: Realizing that a withered body cannot support a clear mind, he accepted a bowl of milk rice from

the village girl Sujata. This led his five companions to abandon him, thinking he had given up.

  • Enlightenment: Recovered and determined, he sat beneath the Pipal tree (now the Bodhi Tree) by the Niranjana River and vowed: “Even if my flesh and blood dry up… I will not rise from this seat until I have attained Supreme ”22

b.   The Night of Awakening

During his 49-day meditation, he overcame the temptations of Mara and systematically entered deep states of absorption. On the final night, he attained the Three Knowledges (Tisso Vijja):

  1. Pubbenivasanussati-nana: Knowledge of his own past lives, spanning hundreds and thousands of
  2. Cutupapata-nana: Knowledge of the death and rebirth of all beings according to their karma.
  3. Asavakkhaya-nana: Knowledge of the destruction of all mental defilements, leading to full

As the morning star rose, Siddhartha became the Buddha, the Awakened One.23

c.    Reflections on Health and Humility

By this time in my journey, I had gained 3 kg (reaching 49 kg), a far cry from the 46 kg I weighed when I first arrived in India and nearly fainted during a mandatory blood test for international students.

As we prepared for the next leg of our journey, I watched the local Indian women walking through the fields in their worn saris. Despite their poverty, their faces radiated a simple, vibrant

  • The Middle Length Saying (Majjhima Nikaya), III, London: PTS, 1993, pages 78-80.
  • The Middle Length Saying (Majjhima Nikaya), I, 4, Kinh Sợ hãi khiếp đãm (The Bhayabheravasutta), pages 28-29.

peace. They seemed happy with what nature provided, a lesson in contentment that even we pilgrims were still striving to master.

While prostrating at Bodh Gaya, we not only see historical relics; we also relive the glorious moments when Prince Siddhartha attained the Three Knowledges on the night of his Enlightenment:

d.The Significance of the Three Knowledges

On the eve of His Enlightenment, Mara the Evil One summoned beautiful maidens from his realm to seduce the Bodhisattva in various ways, attempting to thwart His efforts. However, all of Mara’s obstructions failed.

Emerging through the nine meditative states of absorption, with a mind purified, bright, unblemished, free from impurities, malleable, wieldy, steady, and imperturbable, the Bodhisattva directed His mind toward the Three True Knowledges (Tisso Vijjā). As recounted in the Bhayabherava Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya)24, these three insights arose during the three watches of the final night under the Bodhi tree by the Niranjana River:

  1. The First    Watch:    Recollection    of    Past    Lives (Pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa)
 
  clip_image047.gif


“With a mind concentrated, purified, and bright… I directed my mind to the knowledge of recollecting past lives. I remembered manifold past existences: one birth, two, five, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand, through many cycles of cosmic contraction and expansion. I knew: ‘In such a place I had such a name, such a clan, such a caste, such food, such experiences of pleasure and pain, and such a lifespan. Passing away there, I reappeared here.’ Thus, I remembered my manifold past lives in their modes and details.”

  • Majjhima Nikaya, vol I, papes 22-23.

Result: Ignorance was banished, knowledge arose; darkness was banished, light arose.

  1. The Second Watch: The Divine Eye (Cutūpapāta-ñāṇa)

“With a mind concentrated… I directed my mind to the knowledge of the passing away and reappearance of beings. With the divine eye, purified and surpassing that of humans, I saw beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate. I understood how beings fare according to their actions (Kamma): how those who engaged in misconduct of body, speech, and mind... were reborn in states of deprivation; while those who engaged in good conduct… were reborn in a happy destination, even in the heavenly world.”

Result: This second knowledge was attained in the middle watch of the night.

  1. The Third Watch: Destruction of Taints (Āsavakkhaya- ñāṇa)

“With a mind concentrated… I directed my mind to the knowledge of the destruction of the taints. I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is suffering’; ‘This is the origin of suffering’; ‘This is the cessation of suffering’; ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ I knew: ‘These are the taints (cravings/ignorance)’; ‘This is their origin, their cessation, and the path to their cessation.’ When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taints of sensual desire, being, and ignorance. Knowledge arose: ‘Birth is destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming to any state of being.’”

Result: This third knowledge was attained in the final watch of the night.

 

It means under the Bodhi Tree, on the 49th night, his mind transcended through three levels of supreme wisdom:

  • Knowledge of Past Lives (Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa): Attained during the first watch of the He remembered his own countless past existences, from names and lineages to the joys and sorrows of each life, like watching an endless film of reincarnation.
  • Knowledge of Divine Eye (Cutūpapātañāṇa): Attained during the middle watch. He saw clearly the death and rebirth of all sentient beings. He understood that beings circulate through good or evil realms, driven entirely by their own karma.
  • Knowledge of the Destruction of Taints (Āsavakkhayāñāṇa): Attained during the final watch. He thoroughly penetrated the Four Noble Truths (Dukkha - Suffering, $Samudaya$ - Origin, Nirodha

- Cessation, Magga - Path). His mind was completely liberated from all taints (sensual desire, existence, and ignorance). He officially declared: “Birth is ended, the holy life has been fulfilled, what had to be done has been done, there is no more returning to this state.”25

e.The Middle Way (Majjhima Patipada)

The Buddha’s realization opened the Middle Way, which avoids two extremes:

  1. The first extreme: Indulgence in sensual pleasures (lowly, vulgar, and ignoble).
  2. The second extreme: The practice of self-mortification (painful, unworthy, and unprofitable).

He taught that the path leading to tranquility and Nirvana is the

 
  clip_image047.gif


Eightfold Path: Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right

  • Majjhima Nikaya, tập I, page 22-23.

Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.26

 

 3.3.    THE HERITAGE OF BODH GAYA

Today, standing before the Great Stupa and the Bodhi Tree, we feel the power of His declaration:

Through many a birth in Samsara have I wandered in vain,

Seeking the builder of this house of sorrow.

Repeated birth is indeed suffering!

O house-builder (Desire), you are seen!

You shall build no house again.

 

 

All your rafters are broken, Your ridge-pole is shattered.

To the Unconditioned (Nirvana), my mind has gone; Attained is the destruction of all craving. (Dhammapada, Verse 153-154)27

This event not only transformed the Pipal tree into the Bodhi Tree (Tree of Enlightenment) but also turned this land into the spiritual center of the world. Every step we take here is a reminder of the tireless effort of a great being who dared to sacrifice everything to find the light for humanity.

As children of the Buddha coming from afar, despite our hurried schedule, our hearts are filled with boundless reverence for His

  • Vinaya, by I.B.Horner, I, 10-17.
  • Dhammapada (Pāli Text and Translation), Verse 153-154, Ven. Narada Maha Thera, Maha Bodhi In formation and Publi cations Division, Mahabodhi Society of India, Isipatana Deer Park, Sarnath Center, 2000.

transcendent wisdom.

…The Bodhi tree beside the Diamond Throne (Vajrasana) is specifically a Pippala tree, belonging to the same genus as the banyan (Pippali). Long ago, during the Buddha’s lifetime, the tree reached a height of several hundred feet… [but has since diminished] due to being cut down numerous times. Despite repeated cutting and burning, the tree still stands approximately 40–50 feet tall.28 Because the Buddha attained Enlightenment beneath this tree, it is referred to as the tree of Samyak-sambodhi (Perfect Enlightenment) or the Bodhi-druma (Bodhi Tree).

3.3.i.  A Tragic and Heroic History

Following the historical timeline, we see that Bodh Gaya endured epic ups and downs before its powerful revival today. This is not just the story of a stupa, but a journey to protect the “heart” of global Buddhism.

After the Buddha’s Parinirvana, in 259 BCE, Emperor Ashoka visited and paid homage to Bodh Gaya. Since then, for over 1,500 years, Bodh Gaya has attracted millions of Buddhists from around the world. Rajendralal Mitra wrote the following:

“Not only the royal families from the kingdoms of India, but also other nations vied with one another to contribute to making Bodh Gaya increasingly developed and beautiful. Every spot where the Buddha stopped or accepted offerings of food, every pond where He bathed or washed His robes, every stretch of road He walked, or the places where He once practiced austerities and meditation, all were once carved into stone; and nothing can ever erase those historical records, those wondrous memories.” 29

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • 3 feet = 1 yard (yd) = 914 meters (English-Vietnamese Dictionary, Center for Social Sciences and Humanities & National University, Ho Chi Minh City, 1993, p. 2064).
  • C. Ahir., Buddhist Shrines in India, Delhi, 1986, p. 8.

The Period of Decline and Historical Upheaval

After the era of Master Xuanzang, Bodh Gaya gradually entered centuries of turbulence:

  • Burmese Patronage (11th – 15th Century): As Buddhism in India began to wane, the Burmese played a vital role, restoring the Great Stupa at least three times. However, by the end of the 15th century, the site was largely
  • Terror and Desolation (13th Century): In 1234, the Tibetan monk Dharmasvāmin witnessed a heartbreaking scene: monastics were forced to flee due to the Turkish invasion. The main gate of the stupa was sealed with bricks to protect the Buddha statue inside from destruction.
  • Falling into Non-Buddhist Hands (1590): A Hindu monk (Gosain Giri) occupied the site and built a Hindu temple For centuries afterward, the sacred stupa remained under the management of the Mahant (Hindu) religious order, while the architecture steadily deteriorated.

3.3.ii.   Period of Decline and Historical Upheaval

Following the era of Master Xuanzang, Bodh Gaya gradually entered centuries of turbulence.

The last Indian Buddhist king to contribute to the restoration of the Mahabodhi Temple was King Rāja Aśoka-Balla from the Siwalik range in the Punjab state. Dharmasvāmin, a Tibetan monk who visited the holy site in 1234, found the area in a state of desolation and recorded the following in his travelogue:

“At that time, only four monks remained at the sacred temple. One monk said, ‘It is truly tragic; all the monks have fled due to the terror of the Turkish (Turushka) army.’ They had sealed the main gate in front of the Mahabodhi Temple with bricks and plaster. Nearby, they had erected another image to replace the

 

statue of the Buddha.”30

  • Burmese Patronage (11th – 15th Century): As Buddhism in India began to wane, the Burmese played a vital role in restoring the Great Stupa at least three times. However, by the end of the 15th century, the site was slowly
  • Terror and Desolation (13th Century): In 1234, the Tibetan monk Dharmasvāmin witnessed a heartbreaking scene: monastics were forced to flee due to the Turkish The stupa’s gate was sealed with bricks to protect the Buddha statue within from destruction.
  • Occupancy by Non-Buddhists (1590): A Hindu monk (Gosain Giri) occupied the site and built a Hindu temple. For many centuries thereafter, the sacred stupa remained under the control of the Mahant (Hindu) religious order, while the architecture continued to deteriorate.

3.3.iii.  The Campaign to Reclaim the Holy Site

A historical turning point arrived in the late 19th century, inextricably linked to the name of Anagarika Dharmapala:

  • Vow of Restoration (1891): Witnessing the Great Stupa in a state of abandonment and misuse, Dharmapala founded the Mahabodhi Society on May 31, 1891, to mobilize international Buddhist support and reclaim management rights.
  • Government Intervention (1880): Prior to this, recognizing that previous Burmese restorations were technically inaccurate, the Indian government appointed J. D. Beglar, along with advisors such as Cunningham, to restore the Great Stupa to the historical appearance we see today.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The 1949 Act: After India gained independence, the persistent struggle of Buddhists finally achieved legal
  • C. Ahir., Buddhist Shrines in India, Delhi, 1986, p 16.

results. The Bihar state government enacted the Bodh Gaya Temple Management Act, establishing a joint management committee (comprised of both Buddhist and Hindu representatives).

3.3.iv.  A Powerful Revival

In 1956, on the occasion of Buddha Jayanti (the 2,500th Anniversary of the Buddha’s Birth), Bodh Gaya officially entered an era of revival:

  • International Center: A series of temples from various nations, including Vietnam, Japan, Thailand, and Tibet, were constructed in the surrounding area, creating a “United Nations” of Buddhism.
  • Recognition: The site became a World Heritage destination, attracting millions of people from across all continents to study and practice meditation.

 3.4.    EXISTING RELICS AT BODH GAYA

3.4.i.  MAHABODHI STUPA

The Mahabodhi Temple is not only an architectural masterpiece but also a symbol of great enlightenment. With its pyramid-like structure soaring 52m, the tower stands as a spiritual lighthouse in the heart of Bihar.

clip_image057.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (far left) pictured with her classmates

at the Mahabodhi Stupa, which stands 52 meters high, on October 02, 1996.

 

Structure and Art

  • Design: The temple has a solid square base (15m on each side). At the four corners sit four symmetrical, smaller towers, creating a harmonious and imposing ensemble.
  • System of Mudras (Hand Gestures): The Buddha statues along the temple walls display characteristic hand gestures that help practitioners understand different stages of the Buddha’s life:
    • Bhumisparsha Mudra (Earth-Touching Gesture): The hand touches the earth, bearing witness to his
  • Dharmacakra Mudra    (Turning    the    Wheel    of Dharma): Symbolizing the teaching of the

◇               Abhaya      Mudra      (Gesture     of      Fearlessness):

Representing protection and peace.

Inside the Main Hall

In the rear hall of the lower level, you will encounter the most sacred gilded Buddha statue. The statue faces East, toward the rising sun, the exact position of Prince Siddhartha when he triumphed over the forces of Mara. This statue, offered by the Dalai Lama, reflects profound Tibetan artistic influence and radiates an aura of infinite peace.

3.4.ii.   THE BODHI TREE

Located directly behind the Great Stupa is the Bodhi Tree (Ficus religiosa) 31, also known as the “Tree of Enlightenment.” It stands as a living witness to the greatest event in human history 2,600 years ago.32

•         Spiritual Significance

The Bodhi Tree is more than just a plant; it is a symbol of wisdom. After his awakening, the Buddha stood gazing at this tree for an entire week with infinite gratitude. He taught that Bodh Gaya is one of the four holy places that can help a practitioner achieve a favorable rebirth if visited with a heart of sincere devotion.

In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (Great Discourse on the

      Buddha’s Extinguishment) of the Dīgha Nikāya,33 the

  • To expand on the subject of the Bodhi tree, there is an article by the author Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Chapter 6.6: History of the Bodhi Tree at Bodhgaya in this book “The Dawn of India”. Please read it in next three
  • Pategama Gnanagama, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, p. 45; Dharmadoot, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Sarnath-2000.
  • Digha Nikaya, II, Pāli Text Society, 1886, p. 141.

ahathera Narada, The Buddha and His Teaching, Colombo, 1973, p. 257- 258.

Buddha declared to Ānanda that Bodh Gaya, the site of the Bodhi tree, is one of the four holy places that a person of faith should visit with devotion and reverence. He further taught: “Whoever dies with a heart of faith while on pilgrimage to these places will be reborn in a realm of happiness.”

The sanctity of the Bodhi tree is regarded as a symbol of enlightenment and the living embodiment of the Buddha himself.

The Origin of the Bodhi Tree at Jetavana

On one occasion, while disciples were visiting to pay their respects at the Jetavana Monastery in Sāvatthī, the wealthy benefactor Anāthapiṇḍika spoke with Ānanda. He requested that a sacred shrine be established where people could offer incense, flowers, and fruit during the periods when the Buddha was absent from the monastery.

In response to this request, a sapling was taken from the original Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and planted at the gateway of the Jetavana Monastery. To imbue the tree with further spiritual significance:

  • Consecration: The Buddha sat in meditation beneath this specific tree for an entire
  • Legacy: From that moment forward, this tree became a primary object of worship and veneration for the
  • The Kalinga-Bodhi Jātaka34 and the Kosiya Jātaka35 relate that during the Buddha’s lifetime, the Bodhi tree was deeply respected and venerated as the Buddha The Bodhi tree is regarded as one of the three sacred objects of worship, which include:
  • Buddha Relics (Sariraka)
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Jataka, IV, p. 228.
  • Jataka, II, p. 321.
  • Stupas (Cetiya)
  • Shrines or Image Houses (Paṭimaghara)

While all three objects are held in equal esteem, the Buddha relics are still considered the most noble and supreme among them.

•         A Turbulent History

  • The Bodhi Tree we see today is not the original tree from the Buddha’s time, yet it carries the direct lineage of the ancient tree:

Moving into the 8th and 9th centuries (roughly 700–800 CE), under the Buddhist Pala Dynasty, King Pūrṇavarman replanted the Bodhi tree at the beginning of his reign, around 813 CE. From then on, the tree grew undisturbed until the devastating invasion of the Muslim army led by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1201, during which the Bodhi tree was cut down and burned along with the sacred Great Stupa.

Sharing the same turbulent fate as Buddhist history, the Bodhi tree has been felled and destroyed countless times—by the impermanence of natural disasters, by human hands, and by calculated attempts to erase the traces of Enlightenment. Yet, miraculously, the seeds of Bodhi have always found a way to sprout and flourish. Rebirth always began, replacing the seeds of destruction, and the tree would grow lush and green once more.

This is clearly evidenced by the records of Francis Buchanan, who visited Bodh Gaya in 1811 and described the holy site in his work as follows: “The Bodhi tree is full of vigor and cannot be more than 100 years old. However, a similar tree existed in this same spot when the Great Stupa was first completed.”36

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Eastern India, 1, p. 76; Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Buddha Gaya, 1998, p. 1-3.

However, in December 1862, Alexander Cunningham, the famous British archaeologist who made immense, if not the primary, contributions to excavating Buddhist ruins not only at Bodh Gaya but across many other Buddhist holy sites throughout India, remarked, “The Bodhi tree is very much decayed; the trunk leans towards the west, with three large branches still green, but the other branches are yellow and rotten.”37

  • Heritage: According to Alexander Cunningham, this tree is approximately the 20th generation descendant of the original root.
  • Surviving Adversity: The tree was destroyed several times by non-Buddhist kings (such as King Sasanka in the 6th century). However, new shoots always sprouted from the old stump, or saplings were brought back from Sri Lanka (where a branch of the original had been sent) to be

•         The Ananda Bodhi Tree

  • A fascinating detail is the Bodhi Tree at Jetavana Monastery (Sāvatthī). It was grown from a sapling of the original tree at Bodh The Buddha meditated under that young tree to bless it, providing a sacred object for followers to venerate whenever he was away from the monastery. This demonstrates how the Bodhi Tree became a “sacred object” representing the physical presence of the Blessed One.

•         The Bodhi Tree through the Eyes of Master Xuanzang

  • According to the 7th-century chronicles of Master Xuanzang, the Bodhi Tree was enclosed within a sturdy brick wall with a circumference of about 500 steps. He described a scene resembling a fairyland on earth: exotic flowers in full bloom and climbing vines clinging tightly to the ancient trunk, creating a lush green carpet that blanketed
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Archaeological Survey, 1; Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India,Buddha Gaya, 1998, p. 1-3.

the holy site.

  • Miraculous Characteristics: The leaves of the Bodhi Tree remain glossy and green throughout the year, never withering in winter or summer. However, legend has it that on the day the Buddha entered Nirvana, the leaves suddenly withered and fell, only to turn lush again shortly after, as if in a moment of global empathy.
  • Devotion: Thousands of people from all over gathered here, pouring fresh milk and sandalwood water onto the roots, lighting candles, and hanging vibrant prayer flags, creating an extraordinarily magnificent spiritual

Ups and Downs and the Miraculous Revival

The history of the Bodhi Tree is a series of tragic events interwoven with legendary colors of resilience and life:

•         The Era of King Ashoka (Aśoka):

Aśoka Avadāna (A-dục Vương Truyện): A 2nd-century CE Sanskrit text that chronicles the life and legends of Emperor Ashoka. It is a key source for understanding the legendary aspects of the Mauryan Empire.

Tishya Rakshita (Đế Di La Sát):Ashoka’s last queen.According to legend, she became jealous of the time the King spent at the Bodhi tree, mistakenly believing “Bodhi” was another woman or a rival for his affection. Out of spite, she had a sorceress cast a spell or use poisonous thorns to wither the tree.38

Despite her attempts to destroy it, the tree was miraculously revived (often described as being bathed in scented milk and prayers), symbolizing the indestructible nature of the Dharma.

 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Before converting to Buddhism, it was Aśoka King ordered the tree to be cut down and burned to the roots to destroy all
  • Sree Babu Rajendra Lal’s Buđha Gaya, 97; Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Buddha Gaya, 1998, p. 1-3.

traces of the faith. Miraculously, a vibrant new shoot sprang forth from the ashes. Upon his awakening, he bathed the roots in fragrant milk, causing the tree to grow strong again overnight. Later, out of jealousy over the King’s devotion, Queen Tishya Rakshita secretly cut the tree down in the dead of night, yet a miracle once again brought it back to life.39

King Ashoka sent his daughter, the princess who later ordained as Bhikṣuṇī Sanghamittā, to take a southern branch of the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. It was planted at Anurādhapura during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa. This branch of the Bodhi tree remains lush and green to this day.

Meanwhile, the original Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya was destroyed multiple times throughout later eras. Consequently, the Bodhi tree planted in the city of Anurādhapura has been historically declared the oldest living human-planted tree40 in the world. Regarding the facts of the Bodhi trees at Bodh Gaya and Sri Lanka, the Maha Bodhi (Buddha Gaya) magazine, July 1903 issue, noted:

“The Bodhi tree under which the Blessed One sat in meditation no longer exists. That tree was destroyed in 1874 (Buddhist Era 2418). A branch of this tree was brought by Bhikṣuṇī Sanghamittā, daughter of King Ashoka, to be planted in the capital of Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka. When the original tree was destroyed in 1874, a new sapling grew, and that is the lush Bodhi tree currently at Bodh Gaya. The tree is growing very well, with thick, verdant foliage.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


We can also find the earliest precious records of the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya after the Buddha’s Parinirvāṇa through the

  • Please read vol. III, hmh. XXXIII v cc hmh. XX & LIV: Bhaarhut; A. Cunningham, Thp Bhaarhut [The Stupa of Bhaarhut], ấn bản mới, Ấn Độ, 1962, XXX; A. K. Coomaraswamy, Nghệ Thuật Điu Khắc tại Bhohgaya [La Sculpture de Bodhgaya], Paris, 1935, hmh. LX
  • Symbol and Ritual in Religion with special Reference to Buddhism in Srilanka, D. Jayasekara; The Maha Bodhi Journal, Calcata, 9/1992, p.54.

travelogues of Chinese pilgrims.

Faxian visited Bodh Gaya around the year 400. In his pilgrimage record, he described the site as follows:

“Śramaṇa Gautama went forward until he came beneath the Bodhi tree, where he spread kusha grass and sat facing East. He began to realize the fruit of peaceful liberation throughout seven days…”41

King Sasanka (7th Century): Another non-Buddhist monarch attempted to destroy the tree’s very foundations by burning it and pouring sugarcane juice over the roots. Despite this, he could not extinguish the latent life force of the sacred tree.

The Modern Era: Archeologist Alexander Cunningham noted that the old tree had become completely decayed and was swept away during a massive storm in 1876. Fortunately, fallen seeds germinated at the exact same location, ensuring the continuity of the sacred lineage.

The Bodhi Tree in Contemporary Life

The current Bodhi Tree (believed to be over 100 years old) remains lush throughout all four seasons, its vibrant green leaves casting a protective shadow over the Vajrasana.

  • Spiritual Gifts: During the rainy season, many Bodhi leaves fall. Monks, nuns, and Buddhists often gather these leaves and soak them in water to extract the transparent Afterward, they paint images of the Buddha’s head or silhouette onto the leaf veins to give as gifts or sell to pilgrims as mementos (approximately 10 Rupees for a set of 10 leaves).
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Pilgrimage Rituals: The base of the tree is solemnly wrapped in saffron-colored cloth and protected by a cement There are always resident monks on hand to guide
  • Records of the Western World, Samuel Beal, vol. 1, p. 11.

followers in prostrating, chanting, and practicing meditation in the serene space.

“Turning toward the Bodhi Tree, I sincerely prostrate in reverence. The Blessed One, the Teacher of gods and men, respected and venerated this Bodhi Tree; I too turn toward this supreme Bodhi Tree and sincerely prostrate!”42

 

 
  clip_image059.jpg

 

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (far left) and her classmates

under the sacred Bodhi tree, October 02 1996.

 

3.4.iii.         SECRETS BENEATH THE EARTH: THE VAJRASANA (DIAMOND THRONE)

 
  clip_image047.gif


In 1880, Cunningham43 conducted a pivotal excavation behind the wall of the Great Stupa. He discovered:

  • Dipak Barua, Buddha Gaya Temple Its History, Buddha Gaya Temple Management Committee, Buddha Gaya, 1981, p. 6-7.
  • K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, New York, 1965, p. 33, cf. figs. 46, 55, 70. Bodhighara is a term referring to shrines in the earliest texts. The Mahavamsa mentions a sacred Bodhi-tree shrine at Anuradhapura (Mahavamsa, Chapter VI, verses 103, 126). This Bodhighara was likely modeled after the ancient structures built at Bodh Gaya. Although traces of epigraphic and architectural evidence have been found (University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XVI, 1958, pp. 1–5) and still exist at Bodh Gaya, the only
  • The Vajrasana Foundation: Crafted from granite, standing approximately 3 feet high and 30 feet
  • Ancient Root Traces: Two large roots from the former tree were found still existing deep underground, proving the unbroken succession of tree generations at this specific

According to scientists and archeologists, because the Bodhi Tree is a fast-growing species with a relatively short lifespan, the succession from seeds has occurred approximately 12 to 20 times (representing the “great-great-grandchildren” of the original root) from the time of the Buddha to the present day.

The Diamond Throne Vajrasana– The Ultimate Point of the Universe

Lying humbly yet powerfully between the Mahabodhi Temple and the Bodhi Tree, the Vajrasana is the sacred throne where Prince Siddhartha sat when he triumphed over Mara and attained Supreme Enlightenment.

  • Structure: Discovered during the 1881 restoration, the throne is made of gold-plated bronze (approximately), featuring exquisitely intricate carvings.
  • Spiritual Stature: According to the records of Master Xuanzang, the Vajrasana appeared when the earth was first formed, piercing deep into the ground down to the “Golden Wheel” (the Earth’s foundation). It is considered the only place on earth sturdy enough to withstand the spiritual energy of a Buddha’s All one thousand Buddhas of this “Fortunate Aeon” (Bhadrakalpa) will achieve enlightenment at this exact spot.
 
  clip_image060.gif

typical example of a Bodhighara that almost entirely preserves the architecture of the early period (6th or 7th century CE) was found at Nillakgama (Ceylon). This is considered the sole surviving monument of its kind today (ASCAR, 1954, p. 25 ff.; History of Ceylon, University of Ceylon Publication, Vol. I, Part I, pl. XVII).

In his travelogue, Xuanzang wrote:

“Traveling southwest from the summit of Mount Pragbodhi for about 14–15 li, we arrive at the Bodhi tree. It is surrounded by a tall, solid brick wall. The enclosure is rectangular, long from east to west and short from north to south, with a circumference of approximately 500 paces...

At the very center of the walled enclosure is the Diamond Throne (Vajrasana), where the Buddha sat in meditation. In ancient times, when the Auspicious Aeon (Bhadrakalpa) reached fulfillment, and the earth was formed, this Diamond Throne appeared. It is situated at the exact center of the universe, piercing deep into the Golden Wheel and extending far into the earth. It is composed of a diamond. Its circumference is about 100 paces. Upon this throne, the one thousand Buddhas of the Auspicious Aeon have sat and entered the ‘Diamond-like Samadhi’ (Vajra-samadhi); for this reason, the site is called the Diamond Throne. As this is the place where the Buddha attained Enlightenment, it is also known as Bodh Gaya.”44

3.4.iv.            THE SEVEN-WEEK JOURNEY AFTER ENLIGHTENMENT

At Bodh Gaya, every step you take touches a vestige of the first 49 days of bliss of the Blessed One:

Week

Location         / Monument

Spiritual Significance

1st

The Bodhi Tree

The Buddha sat in silence, experi- encing the joy of absolute libera- tion.
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Samuel beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Delhi, 1994, pp. 119-135; Xứ Phật Tình quê, vol I, Thích Hạnh Nguyện aka Vô Thức, 1996, 105-111.

Week

Location         / Monument

Spiritual Significance

2nd

Animesalocana Stupa

The Buddha stood gazing at the Bodhi Tree for 7 days without blinking to express his gratitude. This white stupa is now where Ti- betan monks often chant the Avat- amsaka Sūtra.

3rd

Chankramana Path

The “Sacred Path” located north of the main stupa. A 16m stone slab is carved with 18 lotus flowers, sym- bolizing the Buddha’s pure foot- steps during walking meditation.

4th

Ratnagraha Shrine

A small roofless shrine. Here, as He meditated, His body radiated a five-colored halo (Blue, Yellow,

Red, White, Orange)—the origin of the modern Buddhist Flag.

5th

Ajapala Ni- grodha Tree

Where He enlightened a conceited Brahmin. Today, only a commemo- rative stone pillar remains near the temple gate to mark this location.

6th

Mucalinda Lake

Located 1.6km from the main stu- pa. The image of the serpent king coiled around the Buddha to protect Him from the rain amidst a silent lotus pond is one of the most mov- ing sights for Buddhists.

7th

Rajayatana Tree

The final week. He accepted milk rice from two merchants, Tapussa and Bhallika—the first lay disciples to take refuge in the Two Jewels (Buddha and Dharma).

clip_image062.jpg

Cankamana (Cloister Walk): The lord buddha spent the third week here walking up and down in meditation. On the platform lotuses indicate the places where the lord’s feet rested while walking. Photo: in October 02 1996.

 

3.5.    OTHER RELICS AND SURROUNDING STRUCTURES IN THE MAHABODHI TEMPLE

COMPLEX

Countless stupas of various sizes surround the Mahabodhi Temple, enhancing its majestic presence. Many of these were built by kings and high-ranking officials to commemorate the Buddha’s grace or as offerings of gratitude after accomplishing great tasks.

However, within the Mahabodhi complex, there are two non- Buddhist structures located immediately to the right and left of the main entrance:

  • To the right: A long, low structure housing five statues, which is actually a temple dedicated to the Hindu deity

Shiva. Hindu devotees have placed a Buddha statue there as well to draw the attention of pilgrims.

  • To the left: A relatively large structure with a pointed spire, which is the memorial stupa for the second abbot of the Hindu temple situated opposite the Mahabodhi

Other notable features include:

  • Stone Railings: An ancient stone fence encircling the temple, of which only a few segments remain relatively
  • Panca Pandava Temple: A white-painted structure to the left of the entrance, featuring five Bodhisattva
  • The Large Pond: Located south of the main temple, with an Ashokan Pillar standing near its entrance.
  • Ashokan Pillars: Three small pillars are erected near the entrance of the Mahabodhi Temple, and one large pillar stands before the Mucalinda

 3.6.    THE NIRANJANA RIVER (Nairañjanā)

Located approximately 180 meters east of the Mahabodhi Temple, this river is known today as the Lilajan River. It is nearly 1 km wide and is where the Buddha bathed before proceeding to the Bodhi Tree. The water flow is seasonal:

In August: The water is very shallow, making it easy to wade across to Sujata’s village; the water is cool with varying depths.

During the rainy season: The current is swift and voluminous. The government has now constructed a large bridge across the river to facilitate travel and transportation.

 3.7.    SUJĀTĀ-KUṬI

This is the site where Sujata offered the milk rice. Crossing the Niranjana River and traveling south for about 2 km brings you to the village of Bakraur. Here, a small shrine houses images of the Buddha in meditation and the milkmaid Sujata offering him sustenance, marking the exact spot where the ascetic Gautama accepted the offering.

3.8.                                    THE FOREST OF ASCETICISM

(Khổ Hạnh Lâm)

From the Niranjana River, a 30-minute drive toward Gaya leads to Bakraur village, followed by a one-hour trek to Pragbodhi Hill. This is where the Buddha left his five companions of ascetic practice before entering meditation under the Bodhi Tree.

He resided in the Dungeswari Cave for a period of time. This hill, now called Dhongra, is located about 1.6 km (1 mile) northeast of Bakraur village, running along the Niranjana River. Legend has it that while the Buddha was staying in this cave, deities informed him that this was not a suitable place to achieve enlightenment.

Today, a Tibetan temple stands on the hill. Pilgrims who make the climb are often warmly welcomed by the monks with tea and snacks, providing a place to rest and recover before visiting the cave.

clip_image064.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương meditation

on the Buddha’s Asceticism. Photo: October 02, 1996.

 

 

 3.9.    MODERN STRUCTURES AND INTERNATIONAL TEMPLES

a. BODH GAYA MUSEUM

Located about 1 km west of the Mahabodhi Temple, near the Thai Temple, this museum displays Buddha statues, ritual items, and artifacts excavated by archaeologists in the Bodh Gaya area. Many statues are headless or partially destroyed, bearing the visible scars of past periods of devastation. Most artifacts reflect carving styles from approximately the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE.

b. THE INDIAN BUDDHIST TEMPLE (The Maha Bodhi

Mahavihar)

Located directly opposite the Mahabodhi Temple, this serves as the headquarters for the Bodh Gaya Temple Management

 

Committee. Established in 1952, the committee consists of eight members: four Hindu and four Buddhist, with the District Magistrate of Gaya serving as Chairman. The building resembles a town hall more than a religious structure. It houses a library and guest rooms, and the local Indian monks here take turns stationed at the Mahabodhi Temple and the Bodhi Tree to guide pilgrims.

c.Mahabodhi Society

Founded by Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka in 1891, this international organization has branches in the US, UK, Japan, and beyond. Its Bodh Gaya headquarters functions as a meditation center, a charity hub providing aid and medical care to the village, and an affordable guest house for pilgrims.

d.A    GLOBAL    TAPESTRY:   THE    INTERNATIONAL TEMPLES

Bodh Gaya has become a “United Nations of Buddhism,” with various nations building temples that reflect their unique architectural and cultural heritage:

  • Chinese and Taiwanese Temples: Located southwest of the stupa, these are spacious and offer modern amenities, including vegetarian restaurants.
  • Tibetan Temples: * Gelukpa Sect: Built in 1983, featuring vibrant red and gold interiors with thousands of Buddha It houses a “Dharma Wheel” and a private suite for the Dalai Lama.
    • Karmapa Sect: Located about 1 km from the stupa, reportedly funded by a $2 million donation from a Middle Eastern oil monarch whose illness was cured by the 16th Karmapa.
    • Shechen Tennyi Dargyeling: A large complex that serves as a Buddhist school for Tibetan
  • Japanese Temples: * Indosan Nipponji: Known for its pristine, polished floors and unique wooden
    • Daijokoyo (Vajrayana): Famous for its massive bronze bell that rings out across the holy site every morning at 5:00
  • The Great Buddha Statue: Standing 14–15 meters tall near the Japanese temple, this massive stone statue is flanked by life-sized sculptures of the Buddha’s ten great
  • Thai Temple: Built by the Thai Royal Family, it features a striking gold-tiled roof and a golden Buddha statue valued at $66,000.
  • Bhutanese Temple: Intricately carved and brightly colored, featuring detailed murals of the Buddha’s
  • South Korean Temple: Located opposite the Vietnamese Temple, reflecting Korean Buddhist
  • The Root Institute: Founded by Western disciples of Zopa Rinpoche, this quiet retreat center offers meditation halls, private retreat huts, and extensive medical charity work.
  • Burmese Temple: Built in 1874 by King Mindon, this historic temple sits near the Niranjana River and offers a large campus for pilgrims.

e.VIETNAMESE FOOTPRINTS IN BODH GAYA

Currently, there are two prominent Vietnamese temples that serve as heartwarming refuges for pilgrims far from home:

1.  Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu (Vietnam Buddhist Temple)

The first Vietnamese temple on Indian soil, founded by Venerable Huyen Dieu (groundbreaking in 1987). It is situated amidst peaceful fields, approximately 2 km from the Mahabodhi Temple.

  • Architecture: The main hall stands 24 m tall with three Notably, the Avalokiteśvara Pavilion is modeled after the One Pillar Pagoda, deeply reflecting Vietnamese national identity.
  • Ten Thousand Buddhas Stupa: Standing 22 m high, it enshrines Buddha relics and 10,000 Buddha statues.
  • Atmosphere: Although parts are still under construction, Vietnamese Buddhists find a “home away from home” here, even sharing simple, traditional meals like canh chua lá giang (sour soup) and sautéed water spinach cooked by their own hands.

2.  Vien Giac Institute of Buddhist Education

Founded by Venerable Nhu Dien (inaugurated in 2002). This temple is spacious and modern, serving as a frequent venue for retreats and academic courses for monastics and international practitioners.

The Meaning of This Gathering

This assembly of international temples proves that Bodh Gaya is truly the “Heart of the Buddhist World.” Regardless of where you come from or what language you speak, you can find a space for practice that feels like home. This spiritual diversity is a testament to the global effort to preserve the site where enlightenment first dawned.

 3.10.    REFLECTIONS FROM THE JOURNEY

Prostrating at the Vajrasana throne, Bodhi tree, and walking through the Seven Weeks is not merely a tour of ancient relics; it is an opportunity to “strengthen your spiritual power.” Standing before the stone lotuses of the walking path or looking at the still waters of Mucalinda Lake, you will feel an invisible,

purifying energy washing over your inner self, helping you return to your own nature of enlightenment.

After the seventh week, the Buddha decided to leave Bodh Gaya and head toward Sārnāth (Deer Park), the place where He would set the first Wheel of Dharma in motion.

3.2. RAJGIR (Rājagṛha)

3.2.1.  OVERVIEW HISTORY OF RAJGIR

Rajgir, located southeast of Patna, is one of India’s most ancient cities. Historically, it was known by various names such as Vasumatī, Girivraja (“City surrounded by mountains”), and Kuśāgrapura (“City of fragrant grass”).45 Master Xuanzang explained that it was called the “City of Fragrant Grass/Reed” because the lush green meadows surrounding the city emitted a sweet fragrance.46

The Five Mountains

The city is naturally fortified by a valley of five hills.47 In Pali scriptures, these are listed as:

1.      Vaibhāra

 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Pāṇḍara
  • Xem C.Law, Rājagṛha in Ancient Literature, Meṃ Arcḥ Arcḥ. Surv. Ind., no. 58, Delhi, 1938; D. N. Sen, Rajgir and Its Neighbourhood, Patna, 1924; F.E.Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, London, 1922; N.L.Dey, Dictionary of Ancient Geography, Calcutta, 1972, s.v. Rājagṛha and Girivraja.;
  1. Legge, Travels of Fa-hien, Oxford, 1886, pp. 80-86; S.Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, London, 1906, I I, pp. 149 ff.; T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, London, 1905, II, pp. 148ff.; Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi, Rājagṛha Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1987, p.2.
  • Because the “reed” originates from khas (Andropogon muricatus ), which grows abundantly nearby.
  • The corresponding Pāli words are: Vebhāra, Paṇḍava, Vepulla, Gijjhakūṭa, and Isigili.

3.      Vaipulya

  1. Gijjhakūṭa (Vulture Peak)

5.      Ṛishigiri

Rajagṛha (Vương-xá) was an important center of Buddhism, and the Buddha spent many years living here. This place is associated with numerous sutras and many significant events in his life. Although he stayed in various locations within Rajagṛha, his favorite remained Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa). He would often stand atop the mountain, contemplating the city of Rajagṛha and the surrounding landscape below, exclaiming:

“Delightful is Rājagṛha! Delightful is Gṛdhrakūṭa!

Delightful is the Gautama-nyagrodha tree! Delightful is the Robbers’ Cliff (Caura-prapāta)!

Delightful is the Saptaparṇī cave on Mount Vaibhāra! Delightful is Kālasiḷā on Mount R̥ ṣigiri!

Delightful is the Snake’s Hood Crag (Sarpa-sauṇḍika-prāgbhāra) in the Cool Forest (Śītavana)!

Delightful is the Tapoda Monastery (Tapodārāma)!

Delightful is the Squirrels’ Feeding Ground at the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)!

Delightful is Jīvaka’s Mango Grove! Delightful is Mardakukṣi!”48

3.2.2.   SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THE BUDDHA’S LIFE IN RAJGIR

Rajgir was a primary center for the Buddha’s ministry, where he spent many years and seasons.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Dīgha-Nikay , Pāli Text Soc., II, London, 1903, pp. 116-7.

Conversion of the Kassapa Brothers: The Buddha converted the three fire-worshipping brothers (Uruvela, Nadi, and Gaya Kassapa) along with their 1,000 disciples.

Royal Patronage: King Bimbisāra of Magadha became a devoted disciple and offered the Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) as the first Buddhist monastery.

The Chief Disciples: It was here that Sāriputta and Moggallāna joined the Sangha after hearing a verse on the Law of Dependent Origination.

The First Council: After the Buddha’s Parinirvana, King Ajātaśatru supported 500 Arahants in the first gathering to systemize the Buddhist scriptures at the Saptaparṇī Cave.

 
  clip_image045.gif

The Tragedy of King Ajātaśatru and Bimbisāra

Rajgir is the setting for the poignant story of filial betrayal and ultimate redemption:

  • The Conspiracy: Influenced by the Buddha’s jealous cousin Devadatta, Prince Ajātaśatru imprisoned and starved his father, King Bimbisāra.
  • The Realization: Only after becoming a father himself did Ajātaśatru realize the depth of parental love. His mother, Queen Vaidehi, told him how Bimbisāra had once bitten his own finger to give the young prince blood to suck when he was
  • Remorse: Overwhelmed by guilt, the King sought refuge in the Buddha’s teachings and spent the rest of his life as a devoted supporter of the

Historical Sites According to Master Buddhaghosa and Xuanzang

 

According to the records of Buddhaghosa,49 Rajgir (Rājagaha) had a population of approximately 18,000,000 people, divided equally between the inner city (antar-nagara) and the outer city (bahir-nagara). The city featured 32 major gates and 64 minor gates.

When Master Xuanzang visited in the 7th century, he documented several key landmarks:

  • Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa): The Buddha’s favorite Xuanzang noted the “Fragrance Chamber” (Mūlagandhakuṭī) where the Buddha stayed, facing East.
  • The Stepping Down Site: A small stupa marking where King Bimbisāra would step down from his carriage to walk up the mountain to meet the Buddha.
  • The Stone for Drying Robes: A flat rock near the summit where the Buddha allegedly dried his robes, leaving impressions in the stone.
  • Devadatta’s Rock: A 45-foot-high rock from which Devadatta attempted to kill the Buddha by rolling a boulder

Eventually, the capital was moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern Patna) due to its fertile river location, and the political significance of Rajgir faded, though its spiritual legacy remains eternal.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi, R jagÙiha, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1987, p.5.

clip_image066.jpg

From right: Ven. Bửu Chánh, Ven. Tâm Đức,

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Bhikṣuṇī TN Nguyên Hương and a monk at Peace Stupa, Rājagaha.

at Gṛdhrakūṭa peak, Rajgir, May 01, 1997.

 

3.2.3.  IMPORTANT HISTORICAL RELICS CURRENTLY REMAINING IN THE CITY OF RĀJAGṚHA

Archaeological excavations in Rajgir have provided a clearer picture of the ancient capital of Magadha and the sacred relics associated with the Sangha during the Buddha’s time. Below is a summary of the significant historical monuments that remain:

3.2.3.i.   NEW RĀJAGṚHA CITY

According to records and excavations, this city was enclosed by a massive earthen wall approximately 5 km in circumference.

  • Wall Structure: The fortifications were built of rough stone, measuring between 57m and 5.50m thick and 3.35m high. Semi-circular bastions protected the gates located at the South and West.50
  • Cultural Layers: Excavations from 1905–06 revealed ancient buildings with three distinct foundation layers. The deepest layer contained precious artifacts, including:
  • Brāhmī copper coins (1st–2nd century BCE).
  • Gold coins featuring images of elephants and trees.
  • Clay tablets inscribed with the Dharma verse: “Ye dharmā hetu-prabhavā…” (Of those phenomena which arise from causes...)51.

3.2.3.ii.   TAPODĀRĀMA HOT SPRINGS (Sarasvatī)

Located at the foot of Vaibhāra Hill, these springs are among the most popular attractions for tourists and pilgrims today.

Characteristics: The water temperature is approximately 105°F (40.5°C) and contains mild radioactivity and minerals, believed to have curative properties for skin ailments.

History: Pali scriptures identify this as Tapodārāma. Both the Buddha and King Bimbisāra frequently bathed here. Today, the area remains crowded with people coming to pay respects and utilize the natural hot water.

3.2.3.iii.        VEṆUVANA MONASTERY (THE BAMBOO GROVE)

 

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, Eastern Cicle, 1905-6, p.

14.

  • Ye dharmā hetu-prabhavā hetuṃ teṣāṃ Tathāgato hy avadat, teṣāṃ ca yo nirodha evaṃ-vādī mahā-śramaṇaḥ.

(“The Tathāgata has explained the cause of all phenomena that arise from a cause, as well as their cessation. Such is the teaching of the Great Shramana.”)

Less than 300m from the hot springs52 lies the Bamboo Grove, the first formal monastery of Buddhism, offered by King Bimbisāra.53

Karanda Pond: A cool pond situated within the grove, donated by Karanda for the monks to bathe and wash their robes. Although the current pond may have been reconstructed on the old site multiple times, it still retains the serene atmosphere of ancient times.

Archaeological Findings: In this area, archaeologists discovered the foundations of nine brick stupas and several important relics:

A stone slab depicting the Buddha turning the Wheel of Dharma. A statue of a Bodhisattva in meditation between two deities.

Small clay stupas inscribed with Dharma verses from the 8th– 9th century.

Significance: This was where the Buddha resided for many rainy seasons (Vassa). A stupa dedicated to Venerable Moggallāna is also believed to be located in this area to honor his status as the foremost in psychic powers.

The presence of lush green bamboo and ancient brick foundations here feels as though the footsteps of the Great Arhats still linger, helping pilgrims deeply sense the golden era of the Dharma in the Kingdom of Magadha.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • According to D. N. Sen in the work Rajgir and its Neighbourhood (page 30), the author disagrees that this current site is the original Karaṇḍa-hrada lake, because Xuanzang explicitly recorded that the lake had already disappeared by his time.

This implies that the current lake, although situated on the ancient site and surrounded by the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana) as D. N. Sen accepts, is not the original one. However, it is possible that the lake has been excavated and restored multiple times on the foundation of the old one.

  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1905-6, 94.

3.2.3.iv. THE MONASTERY OF KING AJATASHATRU

Xuanzang observed a monastery built by King Ajatashatru located east of the Bamboo Grove (Venuvana). This stupa must have been very close to the Bamboo Grove’s grounds, as mentioned in the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa.   Consequently, the mound on the left side of the current road and the stone foundations found there may be the Bamboo Grove stupa, with some pillars likely belonging to a later period.54

3.2.3.v.  THE CAVE OF MAHA KASSAPA (Pippali Cave)

Continuing up from the hot springs on the eastern slope of Mount Vaibhāra, to the right of the path leading to the summit, there is a cave locally known as a “watchtower” (Mañcāna or Jarāsandha-kī-baiṭhak). Both Buddhist scriptures and the travelogues of Chinese pilgrims identify this as the cave where Maha Kassapa resided.

The structure is rectangular with a base measuring 25.9m x 24.7m, a top measuring 24.8m x 24m, and a height of 6 to 8m. Surrounding the cave are several small, irregularly shaped rooms. These walls resemble the rectangular outer walls of Old Rājagṛha, with sloping foundations. On top of this “cave” (structure) are five tombs, four with brick foundations and one located to the south.

According to John Marshall, this site may have originally been a common watchtower with small rooms for guards:

“After that time, when it was no longer needed for guarding purposes, it became a place for hermits to practice.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


Pali scriptures describe the Pippali Cave as the residence of Maha Kassapa, the president of the First Buddhist Council. The Buddha also visited Maha Kassapa here when he was ill.55

  • P.Jayaswal, Imperial History of India, 1934, p.20.
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1905-6, pp. 89-90. List of Ancient Monuments in Bengal, 1895, p. 262-3.

3.2.3.vi.   SAPTAPARNI CAVE (The Seven-Leaf Cave)

Further up from Maha Kassapa’s cave, the path is wide and paved with bricks, but the distance and elevation are strenuous. Many locals offer transport services; four men carry a chair or two men carry a hammock for a fee (approx. 400 Rs).

At the summit of Mount Baibhara stands the modern Ādinātha Temple of the Jain tradition. To the east is a small grassy path leading down to a valley containing six interconnected caves. Part of the artificial entrance is paved and 1.82m wide. Both Mahayana and Theravada scriptures describe this site as the location where 500 monks held the First Buddhist Council six months after the Buddha’s Parinirvana, under the patronage of King Ajatashatru. There is a stupa here commemorating Ananda attaining Arhatship the night before the council. Later, King Ashoka erected a stupa to the west to mark this historic event.

3.2.3.vii.    THE NORTH GATE

Returning to the hot springs and crossing the modern iron bridge at Sarasvatī, turn right and follow the main road for about 182m to find the North Gate of Old Rājagṛha. Buddhist scriptures record that one day, King Bimbisara bathed at the hot springs and found the gate closed upon his return; he consequently spent the night at the Bamboo Grove monastery with the Buddha.56

3.2.3.viii.   BIMBISARA’S JAIL

One kilometer south of Maniyar Math is a brick foundation 60m wide, surrounded by 2m-thick stone walls with circular bastions at the corners. This is Bimbisara’s Jail. From his cell window, the King could look up toward Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) to see the Buddha walking in meditation.57

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Mohammad Hamid Kuraishi, R jagÙiha, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1987, p.20.
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1913-4, trang 90.

3.2.3.ix.   JIVAKA’S MANGO GARDEN

East of the foot of Mount Chhaṭṭha-giri lies the Mango Garden of Jivaka. Jivaka was a famous physician who served Kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru. He offered this garden to the Buddha and the Sangha to build a monastery. Recent excavations have revealed several foundations of ancient monastic structures here.

3.2.3.x.   MARDAKUKSHI

Located near the foot of Vulture Peak, this is where Queen Videhi (Bimbisara’s wife) reportedly tried to induce a miscarriage after learning her child would kill the King. It is also the site where the Buddha was brought on a stretcher after being wounded by a rock thrown by Devadatta, before being moved to Jivaka’s monastery.

3.2.3.xi.   BIMBISARA’S ROAD

At the foot of Mount Chhaṭṭha-giri, a small trail begins to ascend the mountain. Xuanzang notes that when King Bimbisara visited the Buddha on Vulture Peak, his troops “leveled the valleys and built stone steps 10 paces wide and 5 to 6 li long.”58 Marshall noted that these stone steps still existed in Xuanzang’s time as a useful path through the forest.59

3.2.3.xii.    THE STUPAS

Along this road are two brick stupas. Xuanzang noted that the first stupa marks where King Bimbisara dismounted his horse, and the second stupa marks where he ordered his troops to stay behind so he could ascend to the peak alone. These were excavated in 1905–06, though nothing was found inside.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, II, Delhi, 1994, 153.
  • Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1913-4, p.91.

3.2.3.xiii. VULTURE PEAK SUMMIT (Gijjhakūṭa)

Passing through a deep mountain gorge at the end of the stone path, the foundation of Vulture Peak60 is situated on the right. There are two natural stone caves with steps in front of them. Inside one of these caves, terracotta plaques were found depicting the seven past Buddhas and Maitreya Buddha, arranged in two rows with inscriptions beneath each figure. Outside the caves, foundations of large stone structures indicate past buildings. Further up to the right, ancient stone-cut steps lead to a wide brick and stone sanctuary. This site remains a primary destination for pilgrims to chant and meditate, as it is where the Buddha frequently resided and delivered discourses.

3.2.3.xiv.   MANIYAR MATH STUPA

This stupa is a site where a portion of the Buddha’s relics is enshrined. The text notes that Rājagṛha remains a major attraction for tourists and archaeologists. Excavated artifacts from this region are carefully preserved by the Indian government and are currently displayed in the Nālandā Museum.

3.3.   NĀLANDĀ (The Ancient University)

Nālandā is located near the villages of Bargaon and Sarichak, 90 km southeast of Patna and 12 km north of Rājagṛha. It is the birthplace of the Buddha’s two chief disciples, Sāriputta and Moggallāna.61

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Some scholars doubt this However, based on the accounts of Chinese pilgrims and the artifacts discovered here, this possibility is relatively accurate. Furthermore, Pāli literature does not contradict this view. The presence of Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) is confirmed through Gandhara sculptures dating back to the 2nd–3rd centuries CE. (See N.G. Majumdar, Guide to Sculptures in the Indian Museum, Vol. II, Delhi, 1937, p. 61).
  • To expand on the subject of the Bodhi tree, there is an article by the author Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Chapter 6.8: Nālandā in Ancient and Buddhist Literature in this book “The Dawn of India”. Please read it in next three chapters.

Historical Significance

 

 
  clip_image068.jpg

 

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (brown dress) and Vietnamese Monastics in Nālandā ruins, in October 04 1996.

 

OVERVIEW HISTORY OF NĀLANDĀ

  • Ancient Roots: While the university reached its peak later, the site was significant during the time of the Buddha and Mahāvīra (6th–5th century BCE). The Brahmajāla Sutta mentions the Buddha traveling between Nālandā and Rājagṛha, often staying at Pavarika’s mango
  • In Pāli scriptures, the name Nālandā is frequently In the Brahmajāla Sutta (the first discourse of the Dīgha Nikāya or Long Discourses), it is recorded that the Buddha traveled between Nālandā and Rājagṛha (antarā ca Nālandā antarā ca Rājagahaṃ). 62
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Shastri, N land and its Epigraphical Materials, p. 3-4.
  • During these travels, the Buddha often stayed in the mango grove of Pāvārika, a wealthy merchant in Nālandā. It appears that during the Buddha’s lifetime, Nālandā was an influential town, populous, wealthy, and prosperous (iddhā ceva phītā ca bahujanā ākiṇṇamanussā).63
  • Etymology: Xuanzang suggested the name comes from a Naga (dragon) named Nālandā who lived in a nearby pond. Another interpretation is that in a past life, the Buddha was a king here known for his “insatiable generosity” (Na-lan-da meaning “insatiable in giving”).

3.3.1.  KEY FIGURES

According to Xuanzang,64the name “Nālandā” originated from a Nāga (dragon) that lived in a lake to the south of the area65. However, it may be more accurate to say that in a previous life, the Buddha was a king who established his capital here and named it Nālandā, meaning “Insatiable in Giving” (Na-alam- dā)66. Meanwhile, Yijing suggested that Nālandā was named after the Nāga Nālandā.

Faxian traveled 9 yojanas southeast from Pāṭaliputra to a small rocky hill (near Giriyak)67, then continued for 1 yojana, about 7 miles to the west, to reach a place near Nālandā (Baragaon). This is the village where Sariputta was born and entered Parinirvana. A stupa still stood there when Faxian arrived.

  • Faxian (Pháp Hiền): Visited the area in the early 5th While he described a place called Nalo (the birthplace of Sāriputta), he did not describe a grand university, suggesting it had not yet reached its peak importance.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Xuanzang (Huyền Trang): Arrived in the 7th century when
  • Shastri, N land and its Epigraphical Materials, p.4.
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, Delhi, 1994, 173 -
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, II, Delhi, 1994, 167.
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western world, II, Delhi, 1994, 167.
  • R.Patil, Antiquarian Remains in Bihar, pp. 301-305.

Nālandā was at its zenith. He credited King Śakrāditya with founding the first monastery, followed by successive kings like Buddhagupta, Tathāgatagupta, and Bālāditya.

Figure/King

Contribution/Role

Kumāragupta I

Founded the first monastery (Śakrāditya) in Nālandā complex.

Faxian

Left detailed 5th-century accounts used for modern discovery.

Xuanzang

Left detailed 7th-century accounts used for modern discovery.

Devapāla

Provided massive grants; strengthened ties with South East Asia.

Dharmakīrti

Famed logician who defended Buddhism in debates.

Bakhtiyar Khalji

Led the 12th-century invasion that destroyed the site.

Dharmasvāmin

The last Tibetan pilgrim to see the ruins of Nālandā in the 13th century.

3.3.2.  LIFE AT THE UNIVERSITY

Nālandā was a world-class institution with incredibly strict entrance requirements.

  • Academic Rigor: Prospective students faced grueling examinations at the gate; only a small fraction were
  • Curriculum: Students studied both Mahayana and Theravada doctrines, Logic (Hetuvidya), Grammar, Medicine, and Fine
  • Debate: Dialectics and formal debate were the primary methods of learning.
  • Distinguished Scholars:    Notable    figures    included

Śīlabhadra (Xuanzang’s teacher), Abhayākaragupta, and

Naropa.

  • KEY SITES AT NĀLANDĀ
  • The Great Stupa (Temple No. 3): A massive structure standing about 20m high, built in layers over several
  • Monastery Foundations: Large brick courtyards with cells for monks and central shrines.
  • Mango Grove: The traditional site where the Buddha preached for three months.

Royal Patronage and Expansion

Nālandā was not built by a single person but grew over centuries through the devotion of multiple dynasties:

  • The Gupta Dynasty (5th–6th Century): Historians identify King Śakrāditya as Kumāragupta I (414–455 CE), the primary founder. He was followed by kings such as Buddhagupta, Tathāgata-gupta, Bālāditya, and Vajra, each adding new monasteries and supporting the
  • The Harṣa Dynasty (7th Century): King Harṣa of Kanauj built a brass monastery and supported the university during Xuanzang’s visit. During this time, the King of Magadha, Pūrṇavarman, offered an 80-foot copper standing Buddha
  • The Pāla Dynasty (8th–12th Century): Under kings like Dharmapāla and Devapāla, Nālandā entered a second golden Inscriptions reveal that King Bālaputradeva of Java (Indonesia) requested that the revenues of five villages be dedicated to the upkeep of the university, highlighting its international status.

3.3.4.  ACADEMIC AND SPIRITUAL EMINENCE

Nālandā was the epicenter of Buddhist logic and philosophy:

  • Famous Scholars: It was the home of Śāriputra and Moggallāna (whose relics were enshrined in nearby stupas). Later masters included Dharmakīrti, who famously defeated the Brahmin scholar Śaṅkarācārya in debate, and Padmasambhava, who brought Vajrayana Buddhism to
  • The Library: Known as Dharmagañja (Treasury of Truth), it housed thousands of manuscripts.
  • Curriculum: Beyond Buddhism, students studied the Vedas, logic, grammar, and

3.3.5.  THE FALL OF NĀLANDĀ

The university’s decline happened in stages:

  • Internal & Regional Conflict: Wars between local kings in the 11th century caused initial damage.
  • The Islamic Invasion (Late 12th Century): The final blow was dealt by Bakhtiyar Khalji. Historical accounts describe the slaughter of monks and the burning of the massive libraries, which reportedly smoldered for months.
  • The Final Years: The Tibetan monk Dharmasvāmin visited in 1234–1236 CE and found a ghost of the former Only two temples remained functional, supported by a few aging monks amidst the ruins.

3.3.6.  ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERY

After centuries of being buried under mounds of earth (known locally as Bargaon), Nālandā was rediscovered:

  • Alexander Cunningham: In the 1860s, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India identified the site based on

the precise travel records of Xuanzang.

  • Excavation Results: Systematic digging began in 1915, revealing a planned city:
    • Dimensions: Approximately 1,600 feet (North-South) by 800 feet (East-West).
    • Layout: A central path 100 feet wide separates a row of 9-11 monasteries (facing West) from a row of temples (facing East).
    • Temple No. 3: The most iconic ruin, a massive stupa- temple structure surrounded by votive stupas built over four distinct historical layers.

Today, the site is a UNESCO World Heritage site, standing as a testament to India’s “Golden Age” of education and spiritual inquiry.

3.3.7.   DETAILED ARCHITECTURAL SURVEY OF THE REMAINING STRUCTURES AT NĀLANDĀ

Specifically focusing on the numbered monasteries (Viharas) and temples uncovered by archaeologists.

3.3.7.i.   MONASTERY NO. 1 (The Central Hub)

Located at the southern end, this is the largest and most significant structure at Nālandā.

  • Architecture: A rectangular building (205’x168’) built with high-quality bricks. It features a grand entrance on the western side leading to a 32-foot-wide
  • Living Quarters: The lower level consists of simple rooms without beds, while upper-level rooms each contain two 9- foot stone beds.
  • Religious Center: Opposite the main gate is the sanctuary enshrining a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha in
  • Archaeological Wealth: This site yielded the most artifacts, including copper  plate   inscriptions   from kings Samudragupta, Devapāla, and the decree from Bālaputradeva of Java. Experts believe this was the administrative heart of the university.

3.3.7.ii.  THE TEMPLES (No. 3, 12, 13, and 14)

The temples follow a distinct layout often compared to Hindu styles of the same era.

  • Temple 3: A massive structure surrounded by numerous “votive stupas” (votive offerings). It underwent seven layers of construction over centuries. The fifth layer (6th century) is notable for its exquisite stucco reliefs of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, reflecting the Sārnāth-Gupta style.
  • Temples 12, 13, and 14: These follow the pañcāyatana (five-shrine) layout, one central main hall with four smaller corner towers.
  • Architectural Fusion: Archaeologist G.C. Chawley notes that Temple No. 12 shares striking similarities with Hindu temples in Odisha (such as the Brahmeśvara Temple), showing the cross-pollination of Buddhist and Hindu architectural art in Eastern India.

3.3.7.iii.  MONASTERY HIGHLIGHTS (No. 1A through 11)

The text details the unique features of the various living and study quarters:

  • Monasteries 1A & 1B: Built on high ground with concrete stairs, proving these buildings were multi-storied. Monastery 1B features a unique octagonal well.
  • Monastery 5: Noted for its “double-row” room configuration, where one room is situated directly behind another, connected by corbelled doorways.
  • Monastery 6: Contains two brick-paved courtyards and two rows of ovens. While some suggest these were for cooking, Venerable Thich Minh Chau argues they were likely for dyeing robes, as monks traditionally did not cook inside the monastery.
  • Monastery No. 9: Evidence of fire was found here; the presence of charcoal on the stairs suggests the original wooden structures were burned down during
  • Monastery 10: Distinguished by the use of mud arches

and door frames instead of wood.

  • Monastery No. 11: Located near rice fields, this site is in a state of ruin but is unique for its 25 stone pillars standing in the courtyard, spaced exactly one meter

Summary of Archaeological Features

 

Feature

Notable Location

Significance

Copper Decrees

Monastery No.

1

Evidence of international royal support (Java/Gupta).

Stucco Reliefs

Temple No. 3

High-water mark of Gupta-era Buddhist art.

Dyeing Ovens

Monastery No.

6

Evidence of daily monastic life and robe maintenance.68

Octagonal Well

Monastery No.

1B

Advanced water management and unique geometry.

Stone Pillars

Monastery No.

11

Unique structural support not seen in other blocks.

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Thích Minh Châu, The Path to the Buddha’s Land, Đại Nam, USA, 1994, 219.

3.4.THE DEER PARK (Sārnāth)

The Journey to Sārnāth

We arrived at Gaya station to catch a train to Sārnāth. The train was scheduled for 10:00 AM in October 6, 1996, but our group sat waiting until 2:00 PM, and it still hadn’t arrived. Finally, the station announced that an accident had blocked the tracks, and the train would not be coming. We decided to “offer” our tickets to a local High Monk (hoping he could refund them later) and hurriedly rented a bus. Because of the urgency and the long distance, the rental price was quite high. The bus had to drive through the entire night to reach our destination.

The bus ride turned out to be quite joyful. Since we had the bus all to ourselves, we spent the night singing and performing for one another. The Indian driver and his two assistants seemingly couldn’t handle our “melodious” singing, so they turned up their Indian music to full volume to drown us out. It became a battle between humans and machines, alternating songs and telling humorous Buddhist stories to make the long night pass quickly.

At 4:00 AM the next morning, we arrived at the Chinese Temple. The temple was still asleep, so we had to call out for someone to open the gates. Eventually, everyone found a warm, cozy place to sleep at the Chinese Temple in Sārnāth, Varanasi.

The Sacred Significance

 
  clip_image047.gif


Sārnāth is a deeply sacred site for Buddhists. It is where the Buddha delivered his first sermon to the five ascetics: Koṇḍañña, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Assaji69. These were the individuals whom He had previously encountered in Rājagaha. Since then, his Buddhism has spread across more than half the

  • The Buddha and His Disciples (Phật và Thánh chúng), translated into Vietnamese: Cao hữu đính: Kiều trần như (Ajnata Kaudinya), A xả bà thệ (Asvajit), Maha bạt đề (Bhadrika), Thập lực ca diếp (Dasabala-kasyapa), Ma nam Câu ly (Mahanama-kuliya.

globe. This is why Sārnāth remains one of the Four Great Holy Sites of Buddhism or “Sārnāth - The Cradle of Buddhism”70. It is located about 13 kilometers from Varanasi (anciently known as the capital of Kashi or Benares), in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

 
  clip_image070.jpg

Vietnamese Monastics,

at Sārnāth Stupa, Varanasi, India, in October 06 1996.

 

3.4.1.   OVERVIEW HISTORY OF SĀRNĀTH Historical and Geographical Notes

  • Sārnāth: One of the four main pilgrimage sites (the others being Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, and Kushinagar). It marks the site of the first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The Decision to Teach: This event is known as the Ayacana Sutta (The Request). It highlights the Buddhist view that even a Buddha respects the principle of causality, the “request”
  • Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Sārnāth - The Cradle of Buddhism, Hong Duc Publishing House, 2020. https://thuvienhoasen.org/images/file/KuVxsnF42AgQANN8/sarnath-the- cradle-of-buddhism-thich-nu-gioi-huong.pdf

provides the necessary condition for the “teaching” to occur.

  • Isipatana (Chư Thiên Đọa Xứ): Historically translated as “The place where the sages land” or “The falling of the ” Legend says that Pratyekabuddhas (Silent Buddhas) would fly from the Himalayas and land here.
  • The Distance: The 250 km trek from Bodh Gaya to Sārnāth is a significant historical journey, illustrating the Buddha’s commitment to finding his former companions despite the physical distance.

i.  The Era of the Buddha (6th Century BCE)

Originally known as Isipatana (“the place where sages landed”) or Mrigadava (Deer Park), Sārnāth is where the Buddha traveled after his Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.

  • The First Sermon: The Buddha preached the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Eightfold Path to his five former companions.
  • Birth of the Sangha: It was here that the first sixty monks were ordained and sent forth to spread the Dhamma, marking the formal beginning of the Buddhist

ii.   The Mauryan Golden Age (3rd Century BCE)

Emperor Ashoka transformed Sārnāth into a major center of pilgrimage and power.

  • Dharmarajika Stupa: Built by Ashoka to enshrine the relics of the (Tragically, much of its material was removed in 1794 by Jagat Singh for construction).
  • The Ashoka Pillar: Topped by the Lion Capital, which now serves as the National Emblem of India. The pillar features an inscription warning monks against causing schisms in the

iii.  The Kushan & Gupta Periods (1st – 6th Century CE)

This era marked the peak of Sārnāth’s artistic and intellectual influence.

  • The Dhamekh Stupa: The current massive structure (43.6m tall) dates largely to the Gupta period. It is famous for its intricate floral stone carvings and Brahmi
  • Sārnāth School of Art: Characterized by the “wet drapery” style and the serene, meditative facial expressions of the Buddha statues (many of which are now in the Sārnāth Museum).

iv.   Medieval Decline & Rediscovery (11th – 19th Century CE)

Pala Dynasty: Rulers continued to patronize Sārnāth until the 12th century. The last major monument, the Dharmachakra Jina Vihar, was built by Queen Kumaradevi.

The Fall (1194 CE): Sārnāth was largely destroyed during the invasions by the Ghurids, leading to centuries of neglect.

Rediscovery: In the 1830s, Alexander Cunningham led major excavations, bringing the site back to global consciousness.

Feature

Dharmarajika Stupa

Dhamekh Stupa

Origin

Mauryan (Ashoka)

Mauryan, expanded in Gupta

Purpose

Reliquary (enclosing relics)

Commemorative (marking the sermon)

Current State

Only the foundation remains

Nearly intact, massive cylinder

3.4.2.   THE GREAT REQUEST

Reflecting on the course of history, during the eighth week after

his Enlightenment, the Buddha contemplated how he could bring the truth of Enlightenment to sentient beings. He considered that people in this world are deeply mired in the five sensual desires, making it difficult for them to receive the profound Dhamma he had just realized. Furthermore, if the Buddha were to preach his teachings and people did not understand, it would be a futile endeavor. These and many other thoughts arose in his mind, and he ultimately decided not to preach.

At that moment, Brahma Sahampati71 observed and realized that the Buddha’s current inclination would result in misfortune for the world and that humanity would suffer greatly as a result. Immediately, Brahma joined his palms and entreated the Buddha:

“O Blessed One! Please graciously preach the Dhamma to dispel ignorance, for there are still many who wish to escape the bonds of the worldly realm. If they do not know the True Dhamma, they will fall into ruin. We implore you to be compassionate and mercifully bestow the milk of the Dhamma.”

After this request was made three times, the Buddha accepted the invitation.72 Immediately following this, the Brahma bowed in gratitude to the Buddha and disappeared.

3.4.3.   SEEKING THE FIRST DISCIPLES

The Buddha then pondered: “To whom shall I first teach the Dharma? Who is capable of understanding it?”

  • According to Buddhism, Sahampati is Svayambhu; however, the book The Legend of the Burmese Buddha states: “This Brahma, during the time of Kassapa Buddha, was an Arhat (Rahan) named Sahaka...” It appears that according to the specific Burmese pronunciation, Kassapa is read as Kathaba, and Sahaka is read as Rahan means Arhat.
  • The Great Chronicle of Buddha (Ven. Minyun Sayadaw) , states that the Buddha looked upon the world with his eyes of wisdom and saw that some people were completely submerged in the depths of sin and defilement, some were only halfway submerged, and others possessed the potential for spiritual efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www>.bps.lk/olib/mi/mi014.pdf

He first thought of Ālāra Kālāma, his first teacher who taught him the state of “Nothingness,” and then Uddaka Rāmaputta, his second teacher who taught him the state of “Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.” He deemed them worthy, but through his divine insight, he realized both had already passed away.

He then thought of the five ascetic companions who had practiced with him in the forest: Koṇḍañña (Kaundinya), Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Assaji. 73 Using his supernatural powers, he saw that they were staying at the Deer Park (Migadāya), also known as Isipatana (The Place of the Falling Seers), in Sārnāth.

The Buddha embarked on a journey of over 250 kilometers on foot from Bodh Gaya, crossing the Ganges River by ferry and traveling through the city of Kashi to reach Sārnāth.

3.4.4.   THE MEETING AT SĀRNĀTH

When the five ascetics saw the Buddha approaching from a distance, they whispered to each other:

“Friends, here comes the ascetic Gotama. He has become a Vāhullika (one who lives in abundance) and a Vibhrānta (one who has strayed from the path). We should not greet him, stand up for him, or show him reverence. We will simply set out a seat, and he can sit there if he likes.”

However, as the Buddha drew closer, they became restless and uneasy. When he stood before them, his majestic, calm, and transcendent presence was so overwhelming that, without a word to one another, they all instinctively stood up to welcome him with deep respect.

The Buddha sat down and washed his feet. He then gently told them his story, how he had discovered the Middle Way and abandoned the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-

mortification. He explained that he had not returned to a life of luxury, but through his diligent meditation after leaving asceticism, he had finally conquered Mara under the Bodhi tree and attained Full Enlightenment.

3.4.5. THE BIRTH OF THE SANGHA

The five ascetics initially addressed the Buddha by his name or as an equal. The Buddha explained that they should no longer address him by name or as a “friend,” for he was now an Enlightened One, a Tathāgata, and a Samyak-sambuddha (Perfectly Enlightened One):

“O Monks, through unceasing effort, I have attained enlightenment and the state of deathlessness. For your benefit, I shall teach you the Dharma. If you practice according to these teachings, you too shall soon realize the truth, gain wisdom, and end the cycle of birth and death.”74

Initially, the five ascetics did not believe him, arguing that if he could not achieve wisdom through severe asceticism, he certainly could not have achieved it by returning to a life of “abundance.”

The Buddha clarified that he had not returned to luxury, but had stayed diligent in the Middle Way. After he asked them three times, “Have I ever spoken to you like this before?” they admitted he had not and decided to listen. Thus, he delivered his first sermon, known as “Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion” (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta).75

The Core Teachings

 
  clip_image047.gif

Upon hearing the sermon, Aññā Koṇḍañña attained the state of Sotapanna (Stream-entry). He requested to follow the Buddha, and the Buddha welcomed them saying, “Come, O Monks, the Dharma is well-preached.” In that moment, the Sangha (the monastic community) was officially formed at Isipatana Migadāya. Soon after, the Buddha preached the second sermon, the Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (Discourse on the Non-Self)76, and all five became Arahants. At that time, there were only 6 saints (The Buddha and five Aññā Koṇḍañña disciples) in the world.77

3.4.6. THE CONVERSION OF YASA

While at Sārnāth, the Buddha met a young Brahmin named Yasa. Yasa was the beloved son of a wealthy merchant, living a life of extreme luxury surrounded by beautiful dancers.

One night, Yasa woke up at midnight and saw the dancers sleeping. The sight was repulsive: some were snoring with mouths wide open, saliva drooling, talking in their sleep, with disheveled hair and smeared makeup. To Yasa, the palace suddenly looked like a “living cemetery” (śmaśāna).

Filled with distress, he left his home and wandered toward the Deer Park. The Buddha, seeing him from a distance, stepped of f his meditation path (Caṅkramaṇa) and sat down. Yasa

 

approached him, crying out: “Everything is so distressing and

miserable!”

The Buddha replied kindly: “Here, there is no distress and no

sorrow. Come, sit down, and I will teach you the Dharma.”

The Buddha taught him about:

1.      Dana (Generosity) and Sila (Morality).

  1. The Heavens and the drawbacks of sensual

3.      Renunciation and the path to true peace.

Yasa’s heart became pure like a clean white cloth, and he attained Enlightenment.

The Expansion of the Sangha

  • The First Lay Disciple: Yasa’s father came looking for After hearing the Buddha’s teaching, he became the first layman to take refuge in the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha).
  • The Four Friends: Yasa’s close friends (Subāhu, Punṇaji, Gahampati, and Vimala) also sought out the Buddha and became
  • The 50 Youths: Shortly after, 50 more young men from wealthy families joined the Sangha. Within a short time, there were 61 Arahants in the world (the Buddha and his 60 disciples).

3.4.7.   THE SPREADING OF THE DHARMA

The Buddha spent his first rainy season retreat (Vassa) at Sārnāth. He encountered another group of 60 youths who were searching for a missing girl. The Buddha famously asked them:

“Which is better: to seek a woman, or to seek yourselves?”

They replied that seeking themselves was better. They listened

to his teaching and became lay followers.

From Sārnāth, the “Dharma-water” began to flow everywhere. During his several visits to Sārnāth, the Buddha delivered many important discourses78, including:

  • Panca Sutta (Discourse on the Five)79
  • Rathakara Sutta (The Chariot Maker)80
  • Dhammadinna Sutta     (Preached    to     the     layman Dhammadinna)81
  • Anattalakkhana Sutta (Discourse on Non-self)82

3.4.8.        THE    CONTINUED   LEGACY OF ISIPATANA (SĀRNĀTH)

Monastic Life and Dialogues

Sārnāth remained a vibrant center for the Sangha long after the Buddha’s Parinirvana. It was the setting for profound dialogues, such as those between Sariputta and Mahakotthita. It was also here that the monks attempted to help Channa overcome his spiritual difficulties. On another occasion, the Buddha established rules here regarding the consumption of meat (specifically prohibiting human meat after the laywoman Suppiya offered a piece of her own flesh to heal a sick monk). Even Mara (the Tempter) is said to have challenged the Buddha twice at Sārnāth, only to retreat in failure.

The Testimony of Xuanzang (7th Century)

In his Buddhist Records of the Western World, the Chinese

 
  clip_image047.gif

78 A, I, 109; A, I, 280; A, III, 399; A, IV, 383; S, I, 105; S, V, 406...

pilgrim Xuanzang described Sārnāth as a flourishing center with 15,000 monks studying the Hinayana tradition. He noted:

  • A magnificent monastery 200 feet high with a golden mango-leaf roof.
  • A life-sized copper statue of the Buddha in the “Turning the Wheel of Dharma”
  • A stone stupa built by King Ashoka and a 70-foot stone pillar, as bright as jade, which reflected signs of good or ill fortune to those who prayed there.
  • Memorials marking the site where the five ascetics practiced meditation and where 500 Pratyekabuddhas entered

3.4.9. THE LEGEND OF THE DEER KING

According to the Udapana Jataka (Story 150)83, there was an ancient well at Isipatana (Chư Thiên Đọa Xứ) that the Sangha frequently used during the Buddha’s lifetime.

Furthermore, the Nigrodhamiga Jataka (The Banyan Deer Jataka) and the Mahāvastu (The Great Story) recount a legend related to Sarnath-Isipatana as follows:

The name Migadaya (Deer Park) originates from a famous

Jataka story (a tale of the Buddha’s past life).84

 
  clip_image047.gif


In ancient times, a king of Benares, Brahmadatta, loved hunting deer. The Bodhisattva was then a magnificent golden deer named Nyagrodha85, leading a herd of 500. Another deer, Visakha, led a second herd of 500. To prevent the wasteful slaughter caused by the king’s hunts, the two deer kings struck a bargain with Brahmadatta: one deer would be sent to the royal kitchen voluntarily each day.

  • 150Jataka, Fausboll, II, 354 ff.
  • Jataka, Fausboll, II, 145 ff.
  • Jātaka, I,

One day, a pregnant doe from Visakha’s herd was chosen. She begged for her life until her fawns were born. Visakha refused to skip her turn, so she appealed to Nyagrodha. Moved by compassion, Nyagrodha decided to go to the kitchen himself to die in her place.

When the King saw the golden deer king lying his head on the chopping block, he was stunned. Upon learning the reason, the King was deeply moved and declared:

“You are a beast with a human heart; I am a human with a beast’s heart.”

The King immediately granted immunity to all deer and dedicated the forest to them. Thus, the area became known as Isipatana-Migadaya, the Deer Park.

 
  clip_image072.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương feeding deers

at Isipatana-Migadaya, Sārnāth, October 06, 1996.

 

3.4.10.            ARCHAEOLOGICAL     MONUMENTS      AND ROYAL PATRONS

  1. King Ashoka (3rd Century BCE)

Ashoka was the first major patron of Sārnāth. His contributions include:

  • The Dharmarajika Stupa: A massive structure once 4m high (tragically dismantled in 1794 for building materials).
  • The Lion Capital: A monolithic pillar topped by four back- to-back lions. This capital is now the National Emblem of India.
  • The Ashoka Edicts: Inscriptions warning against schism within the Sangha.

ii. The Gupta Golden Age (4th–6th Century CE)

Sārnāth reached its artistic zenith under the Guptas.

  • The Dhamekh Stupa: The massive, existing stupa is decorated with intricate geometric and floral stone
  • Masterpieces of Sculpture: The famous “Preaching Buddha” statue (Dharmacakra-pravartana-mudra), widely considered one of the finest examples of Buddhist art in the

iii. The Final Destruction

Sārnāth survived various invasions, including the Huna (Huns) in the 5th century. However, the final catastrophe occurred in the late 12th century when the armies of Muhammad of Ghor swept through.

Archaeologist Cunningham and Major Kittoe noted that every excavation at Sārnāth revealed layers of charcoal and half-burned timber.

Monks were killed, and the monasteries were razed by fire. Unlike the city of Benares (Varanasi), which revived as a Hindu center, the Buddhist community at Sārnāth never recovered from this final blow.

SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL RUINS

 

Monument

Origin / Era

Significance

Dhamekh Stupa

Ashokan core / Gupta expansion

Marks the exact spot where the Buddha first preached.

 

Lion Capital

Ashoka (Maurya)

Symbol of the spread of Dharma; India’s national emblem.

Mula- gandhakuti

Gupta / Harsha

The main temple where the Buddha stayed.

Chaukhandi Stupa

Gupta / Mughal

Marks where the Buddha met his five friends again.

Today, the artifacts from these 1,500 years of history (3rd century BCE to 12th century CE) are preserved in the Sārnāth Archaeological Museum.

3.4.11. THE CURRENT MONUMENTS OF SĀRNĀTHA

Today, five major structures at Sārnāth are considered directly related to the life of the Buddha: the Dhamekh Stupa, the Dharmarājikā Stupa, the Main Shrine (Mūlagandhakuṭī), the Ashoka Pillar with its lion capital, and the Caṅkama (the Buddha’s walking path).

i. CHAUKHANDI STUPA

Standing independently near the Asharpur roundabout, this stupa is about 200m from the Thai Temple. It appears as a large earthen mound topped by an octagonal tower built in 1588 by King Akbar to commemorate his father, Humāyūn, who had visited the site. This stupa marks the traditional spot where the

Buddha first met his five former companions upon arriving at Sārnāth.

ii.   THE ARCHAELOGICAL ENCLOSURE

Upon entering the main archaeological site, the following ruins are visible:

a. MONASTERY VII & MONASTERY V

  • Monastery VII: A medieval structure built over an older It consists of a courtyard surrounded by rooms and corridors. Evidence of fire suggests it was destroyed during an invasion.
  • Monastery V: It includes a reception hall (Pratyupa- sthānaśālā) and a main This structure dates from the Gupta period and later expansions. A clay seal with Buddhist teachings in 9th-century script was found here.

b. DHARMARĀJIKĀ STUPA

Built by King Ashoka to enshrine the Buddha’s relics, this was once the focal point of Sārnāth.

  • Evolution: Excavations reveal six expansions over the original Ashokan foundation (13.49m in diameter).
  • The Golden Age: During the 5th–6th centuries, a 4.88m wide circumambulation path (pradakṣiṇāpatha) and four monolithic stone staircases were
  • Discoveries: Significant finds near this stupa include a large red sandstone Bodhisattva statue (3rd year of Kaniṣka) and the iconic Preaching Buddha Though once over 30m high, today only the foundation remains.

c. MONASTERY VI

 
  clip_image047.gif


A 10th-century structure built over a Gupta-era foundation86.

  • The history of Indian Buddhist art began in the Mauryan period under King

Due to the discovery of pestles and mortars, archaeologists suggest this may have served as a hospice or alms-house.

d. DHAMEKH STUPA

This is the most massive and prominent monument in Sārnāth, standing approximately 34m high (reaching 42m if the foundation is included). It marks the exact location where the Buddha “Turned the Wheel of Dharma.”

  • Etymology: Venis suggests the name Dhamekha derives from Dharmachakra (“Reflection on the Dharma”).
  • Architecture: The lower portion is made of massive stone blocks held together by iron clamps and decorated with exquisite Gupta-era carvings of humans, animals, birds, and lotus patterns.
  • Origin:  While   the   exterior   is   Gupta   (5th   century), archaeological evidence shows the brick core dates back to

      the Maurya period (2nd century BCE).                       Ashoka, followed by the Sunga-Satavahana era, which saw the construction of elegant stupas at sites like Bharhut and Amaravati. Early imagery was influenced by the Kushana school in Mathura and the Greco-Buddhist Gandhara style in the North, representing the teachings of the Sarvastivada and Mahasanghika schools.

The Gupta Period (4th–6th Century CE)

The Gupta era is considered the “Golden Age,” where art reached its peak of refinement and spiritual depth. Unlike earlier styles that were outward-looking, Gupta art was introverted and transcendent, focusing on the “Superhuman” (Mahapurusha). Key physical marks include the Ushnisha (topknot), spiral hair, and elongated ears.

The Sarnath School

While Mathura was a major hub, Sarnath became the center for a more creative, graceful aesthetic. The most famous masterpiece from this school is the Preaching Buddha (Dharmachakra Mudra):

Posture: The Buddha sits in the diamond pose (Vajraparyankasana).

The Pedestal: Features the five original disciples and the Wheel of Dhamma between two deer, representing the Deer Park.

Significance: It perfectly synthesizes objective form (sabda) with internal spiritual content (artha), depicting the moment the Buddha first taught the Four Noble Truths.

iii.   THE MAIN SHRINE (MŪLAGANDHAKUṬĪ)

The Main Shrine marks the place where the Buddha lived during his stays at Sārnāth and often used to sit in meditation. Archaeological excavations reveal multiple layers of construction spanning different eras. The deepest layer contains an ayāgapaṭṭa (votive tablet) dating back to the 1st century BCE.

  • Xuanzang’s Description: He described a massive 200-foot- tall structure with a golden mango-leaf The walls were lined with hundreds of niches, each containing a life-sized bronze statue of the Buddha in the “Turning the Wheel” posture.
  • Key Find: A stone umbrella fragment found nearby contains an inscription of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in Pāli (3rd century CE), detailing the Four Noble Truths.

iv.   THE LION CAPITAL ASHOKA PILLAR

Located west of the Main Shrine, this pillar was erected by King Ashoka to commemorate the founding of the first Sangha (consisting of the five companions, Yasa, and his 54 friends).

  • Structure: Originally 25m tall, the pillar was topped by the famous capital of four lions standing back-to-back. Today, only the 2.03m stump remains in situ, protected by an iron fence. The shaft is made of polished Chunar sandstone, tapering from a diameter of 71.1 cm at the base to 55.9 cm at the top.
  • The Schism Edict: The pillar bears an inscription in Brahmi script where Ashoka warns against creating divisions in the Sangha:

“…The Sangha must not be divided. Any person, whether a monk or a nun, who creates a schism shall be made to wear white robes and be expelled from the monastery.”

v.  VISITING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE

The Sārnāth Archaeological Site is a preserved sanctuary of history.

  • Hours: Open daily from 6:00 AM to 6:00 PM (Closed on Fridays).
  • Fees: Entry is 5 Rupees for Indian nationals and approximately 2 USD (100 Rs) for foreigners. International students with a valid Indian ID card can pay the local
  • Photography: Still photography is free; however, a 20 Rs fee applies for video cameras.

where the Buddha lived during his stays at Sārnāth.

  • Xuanzang’s Description: He described a massive 200-foot- tall structure with a golden mango-leaf The walls were lined with hundreds of niches, each containing a life-sized bronze statue of the Buddha in the “Turning the Wheel” posture.
  • Key Find: A stone umbrella fragment found nearby contains an inscription of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in Pāli (3rd century CE), detailing the Four Noble Truths.

3.4.12.   MODERN TEMPLES: THE MULAGANDHAKUTI VIHARA

Founded by Anagarika Dharmapala of the Maha Bodhi Society, this modern temple is the most prominent landmark outside the ruins.

clip_image074.jpg

The Mulagandhakuti Vihara (Hương Phòng)

stands majestically adjacent to the Sārnāth archaeological site (on the left when looking out from within).

Pictured are Bhikṣu Sumedha Thero (center), Ni sinh TN Giới Hương (third from left),

and a Vietnamese pilgrimage delegation on October 6, 1996.

 

a.  Architectural and Artistic Wonders

  • Frescoes: The interior is famous for its murals painted by Japanese artist Kosetsu Nosu. These scenes depict the entire life of the Buddha, from his birth in Lumbini to his Mahaparinirvana in
  • Relics: The temple enshrines authentic Buddha relics discovered in Taxila and Nagarjunakonda, donated by the Viceroy of India.
  • The Bodhi Tree: Outside the temple grows a lush Bodhi tree, a descendant of the original tree at Bodh Gaya. A life- sized statue group of the Buddha and the five disciples sits

b.   International Buddhist Presence

Sārnāth is home to a global community of temples, most of which offer affordable lodging for pilgrims:

  • The Tibetan Institute: The Central Institute of Higher Tibetan
  • National Temples: Chinese, Japanese (Matri Buddha), Burmese, Thai, Korean, and various Tibetan schools (Gelugpa, Nyingma).

3.4.13. THE GANGES RIVER

The Ganges River flows 2,469 kilometers from its source to the sea through various tributaries, covering one million square kilometers, nearly one-third of India’s geography. Ancient cities like Haridwar, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Calcutta line its banks. Originating from the majestic, snow-capped Himalayas and flowing into the Bay of Bengal, the Ganges is the “artery of life” and is worshipped as a sacred goddess.

Spiritual Significance in Buddhism

In Buddhist scriptures, the Ganges is a constant metaphor for infinity. Phrases like “as numerous as the grains of sand in the Ganges” are used to describe the count of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, or immeasurable merits. During his lifetime, the Buddha crossed this river many times. The Lalitavistara Sūtra notes that once, the Buddha had no money to pay a ferryman; upon hearing this, King Bimbisara decreed that all monastics be exempted from travel fees thereafter.

Rites of the Holy River

Varanasi (Benares) has 80 cremation grounds. The riverfront Ghats (stone steps) are considered the most sacred places to bathe, pray, and meditate.

  • Purification: Hindus believe the water washes away the sins

of many lifetimes. Many elderly people come to Varanasi to spend their final days, hoping to die and have their ashes scattered in the river to achieve liberation.

  • Morning Rituals: At dawn, pilgrims gather to bathe and offer palmfuls of water back to the river as a sacrifice, seeking harmony with the divine.

3.5.   LUMBINI (NEPAL)

On May 5, 1997, during a sweltering 45°C summer break, the author set out on a second journey with friends Lal Zikpuii, Yankna, and Sanya (a Nepali native) to visit the remaining holy sites: Lumbini, Kushinagar, and Vaishali.

Crossing the Border

The group traveled from Delhi to Gorakhpur by train, then took a bus to the Sonauli border. A complication arose because the author had forgotten their FRRO (Foreigner Regional Registration Office) residency book. Despite having a passport and visa, the Nepali police were strict. Only after three hours and a round of “Pepsi” for the officers was the group allowed to cross.

Arrival at Lumbini

Lumbini was 40 km from the border, but the local bus, crowded with villagers and goods, took over two hours. Arriving in pitch darkness, the author had to negotiate a Jeep ride to the Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu (Vietnamese Temple).

  • The Host: They were welcomed by Venerable Huyen Dieu, the abbot who built the grand Vietnamese temple in
  • Vietnamese Flavors: After a long journey, the group enjoyed a traditional Vietnamese meal of sour soup with

morning glory, eggplant, and okra, which even the Indian and Nepali friends enjoyed.

  • The Location: Lumbini, located in modern-day Nepal, is the site of the first of the four great events of the Buddha: his Birth. Historically, this region was a branch of the Silk Road, connecting the hills of Nepal to Ladakh and

Summary of the Four Great Holy Sites

 

Event

Location

Modern Country

Birth

Lumbini

Nepal

Enlightenment

Bodh Gaya

India

First Sermon

Sārnāth

India

Parinirvana

Kushinagar

India
  • OVERVIEW HISTORY OF LUMBINI

The history of Lumbini, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, is a unique chronicle of a sacred site that shifted from a flourishing garden to a forgotten forest, only to be rediscovered through the lens of archaeology and international diplomacy.

The birth of Prince Siddhartha in Lumbini is a pivotal event in human history, marking the arrival of the “Great Compassionate One.” According to traditional records, he was born on the full moon day of May (Vesak) in 563 BCE.

i.  The Birth and the Garden (6th Century BCE)

In the 6th century BCE, Lumbini was a beautiful garden located between the kingdoms of Kapilavastu (the Sakyas) and Devadaha (the Koliyas).

  • The Nativity: According to tradition, Queen Maya Devi was traveling to her parental home when she went into She bathed in the Pushkarini (Sacred Pond) and, while holding the branch of a Sal tree, gave birth to Prince Siddhartha.
  • The Seven Steps: It is said the infant took seven steps, and lotus flowers bloomed at each footprint, a moment symbolizing the beginning of his final

ii.   The Ashokan Pilgrimage (249 BCE)

The most critical historical grounding for Lumbini comes from the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.

  • The Ashoka Pillar: Accompanied by his spiritual guide, Upagupta, Ashoka visited the site and erected a sandstone pillar with a Brahmi inscription.
  • The Royal Proclamation: The inscription explicitly identifies the site: “Hida Budhe jate Sakyamuni” (“Here the Sakyamuni Buddha was born”). Ashoka also exempted the village of Lumbini from certain taxes and reduced its grain tribute to 1/8th.

ii. Accounts of Chinese Pilgrims (4th – 7th Century CE)

For centuries, Lumbini remained a vibrant center for monks and pilgrims.

  • Faxian (403 CE): Described the pond where the Queen bathed and noted the presence of the Ashokan pillar (though he mentioned it had been struck by lightning).
  • Xuanzang (636 CE): Provided a more detailed account, describing the “Oil River,” the Ashoka Pillar (now topped by a horse capital), and several stupas marking specific events of the Buddha’s

iv. Decline and “The Great Silence” (14th – 19th Century CE)

Following the decline of Buddhism in India and the subsequent Islamic invasions, Lumbini was eventually reclaimed by the Terai jungles. The site was forgotten for nearly 500 years, known only to local villagers as a place associated with a mother-

goddess figure (Rummindei).

5. Rediscovery and Modern Development (1896 – Present)

  • 1896 Discovery: General Khadga Shamsher Rana (Governor of Tansen) and German archaeologist Alois Führer rediscovered the Ashoka Pillar, confirming the site’s
  • The Kenzo Tange Master Plan (1978): To transform Lumbini into a global peace center, the UN and the Nepal government commissioned Japanese architect Kenzo Tange to design a master plan.
  • UNESCO World Heritage (1997): Lumbini was officially designated a World Heritage Site, recognizing its “outstanding universal value.”

Comparison of Key Historical Evidence

 

Evidence Type

Source/Period

Historical Significance

 

Epigraphic

Ashoka Pillar (249 BCE)

The definitive “birth certificate” of the Buddha.

 

Literary

Xuanzang’s Records (7th c.)

Detailed topographical map used for modern rediscovery.

 

Archaeological

 

Maya Devi Temple

Excavations revealed a series of structures dating back to the 3rd century BCE.
  • THE SACRED BIRTH AT LUMBINI

Lumbini (known locally as Rummindei) is situated in modern- day Nepal, nestled in the foothills of the Himalayas. Historically, it was a beautiful garden located between the kingdoms of Kapilavastu and Devadaha.

  • The Journey: Following the custom of the time, Queen Maya left the palace of King Suddhodana to return to her parents’ home for the birth. While resting in the Lumbini grove, she felt the onset of
  • The Miraculous Birth: Standing and holding a branch of an Asoka tree (Vô ưu), the Prince was born from her right side, remarkably clean and radiant.
  • The Seven Steps: Immediately after birth, the infant Prince took seven steps toward the east. At each step, a lotus flower bloomed to support his feet. Pointing one hand to the sky and one to the earth, he famously declared:

“Above the heavens and below the earth,

I alone am the World-Honored One.

This is my final birth;

I shall end the cycle of suffering for all beings.”87

The Queen could not help but be filled with wonder at the miracles unfolding around the birth of the Prince. At that moment, the world was saturated with joy. The skies were clear and radiant. A brilliant light shone everywhere. Fragrant flowers bloomed, casting a sweet scent through the air. Birds sang, and bees danced among the blossoms. Celestial music echoed softly throughout the heavens.

“O Humanity! Do you know that

an Enlightened One has just been born?

O Sentient Beings! A Being of Great Kindness, Great Compassion, Great Wisdom,

clip_image047.gif

  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon (Tripitaka), Dirgha Agama (Kinh Trường A Hàm), Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1991, p.

Võ Đình Cường, The Golden Light of the Buddha (Ánh Đạo Vàng), 1983. See website: http://www.buddhismtoday.com

and Great Virtue has appeared upon this earth!

 

 

O joy, what joy for all the realms of heaven!

For O sentient beings, an Udumbara flower has bloomed,

and a wondrous, dazzling light shines bright!

 

 

O everyone! Travel to the south of the Himalayan mountains, for it is precisely there that a Buddha has been born!88

3.5.3.  HISTORICAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

After being lost to the jungle for centuries, Lumbini was rediscovered in 1886 by the renowned archaeologist Alexander Cunningham.

a.  The Ashoka Pillar

When King Ashoka visited Lumbini in 249 BCE (the 20th year of his reign), he erected a sandstone pillar to mark the exact birthplace. The inscription remains visible today:

“King Piyadasi (Ashoka)… came in person and offered worship, because here the Buddha, the sage of the Sakyas, was born.”89

The pillar was originally topped with a horse statue, though it was later struck by lightning and broken, as noted by Xuanzang.

b.  Accounts of Chinese Pilgrims

  • Faxian (5th Century): Described the garden where the Queen bathed and the well (now a pond) where the dragons provided warm and cold water to wash the
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Võ Đình Cường, The Golden Light of the Buddha (Ánh Đạo Vàng), 1983. See website: http://www.buddhismtoday.com
  • Lumbini Development Trust, Genesis Publishing, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1988, p. 5

“Fifty li east of the palace city lies a royal garden named Lumbini. It was here that the Queen bathed, and afterward, walking north for about twenty paces, she held onto the branch of a tree. As she gazed toward the east, the Prince was born from her right side. Upon birth, the Prince took seven steps, and two dragon kings sprouted water to bathe his body. At that spot, a well was later excavated, which now remains as large as a lake.”90

  • Xuanzang (7th Century): Provided detailed measurements of the Ashoka Pillar, the Asoka tree (already withered by his time), and the Puskarni Pond where the Sakya clan He also noted the presence of two springs that miraculously appeared to provide water for the newborn.

“To the south, there is also a stupa marking the spot where Sakra (the King of Gods) received the Bodhisattva into his arms. As the Bodhisattva was born from his mother’s right side, the four heavenly kings wrapped him in golden silk, placed him upon a golden tray, and presented him to his mother, saying: “O Queen, be joyful, for you have given birth to a child of such auspicious marks.

Bên cạnh bảo tháp này và cách đó không xa là một trụ đá lớn do vua A-dục (Ashoka) dựng nên, phía trên đỉnh trụ có tạc hình một con ngựa. Về sau, một con rồng hung dữ (có thể ám chỉ một tia sét hoặc thiên tai theo cách gọi dân gian) đã làm gãy đổ trụ đá này. Ngay sát bên cạnh là một dòng sông nhỏ chảy về hướng đông nam mà người dân địa phương gọi là sông Dầu (Oil River). Đây chính là dòng nước tinh khiết mà chư thiên đã hóa hiện để Hoàng hậu tắm rửa sau khi hạ sinh Thái tử.”91

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of Western World, Mortilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1994, p. 1
  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of Western World, Mortilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1994, p.ii 24 -

3.5.4.  KEY MONUMENTS OF LUMBINI

  • THE ASHOKA PILLAR

History records that after becoming a Buddhist, King Ashoka abandoned military conquest (Dig-Vijaya) in favor of conquest by Dharma (Dharma-Vijaya). In the 20th year of his reign, he journeyed to Lumbini with his teacher, Venerable Upagupta.

  • Physical Description: The pillar is made of Chunar sandstone, approximately 0.5m in diameter and 5m tall (the original height is unknown as the top is broken). It is now protected by an iron fence. Nearby, a lush flame tree (Delonix regia) provides shade where pilgrims gather to
  • The Inscription: The five-line Brahmi inscription confirms this is where the Buddha, the Sage of the Sakyas, was born. It also notes that Ashoka granted the village of Lumbini a significant tax reduction, requiring them to pay only one- eighth of their produce.

3.5.4.ii.  THE MAYA DEVI TEMPLE (STUPA)

Located to the right of the entrance, this temple is dedicated to Queen Maya.

  • Relief Carving: Inside is a life-sized stone relief depicting the Queen holding an Asoka tree branch, with the newborn Prince Siddhartha standing on a lotus. Due to local Hindu customs, the statue is often covered in colorful pigments (red, yellow, blue) and flower petals offered by
  • Origin: Archaeologists believe the current structure was built by the Naga Malla kings (11th–15th century) over the original foundation laid by King

3.5.4.iii.  THE SACRED POND (PUSKARNI)

To the right of the Ashoka Pillar is a rectangular pond (approx. 10m x 6.7m) with stone steps. This marks where Queen Maya

bathed after giving birth. Legend says that every Sakya king, before his coronation, had to perform a ritual bath in these holy waters.

 
  clip_image076.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương meditating

at the Lumbini Pond, Nepal, in May 05, 1997.

 

3.5.4.iv.       THE    LUMBINI    LIBRARY    &    RESEARCH CENTER

Built with German financial support, this international-standard library serves as a Buddhist Cultural Research Center. It is the most comprehensive repository of Buddhist and Hindu documents in Nepal and provides scholarships to scholars worldwide, continuing the mission of spreading “Peace and Non-Violence.”

3.5.4.v.  THE LUMBINI MUSEUM

The museum displays archaeological artifacts unearthed at the site, including statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, terra cotta bowls, and ancient stone fragments.

The Three Zones of Lumbini Today:

  1. Lumbini Village: The residential area for local
  2. Monastic Zone: An international area featuring temples from Vietnam, Tibet, India, Japan, China, Korea, Thailand, and Sri
  3. The Sacred Garden: The core area containing the Ashoka Pillar, the Bodhi tree, and the sacred

3.5.5.THE RUINS OF KAPILAVASTU (TILAURAKOT)

From Lumbini, the author traveled 19 km by bus and rickshaw to reach Kapilavastu, the capital where Prince Siddhartha lived until age 29.

  • The Atmosphere: The journey revealed a landscape of humble, impoverished villages with thatched huts and dry, cracked Local children greeted the travelers with “Namaste!”
  • The Ruins: Arriving at sunset, the author found a somber and desolate scene. Very little remains of the once-mighty capital, only scattered bricks overgrown with vegetation and rusted wire
  • Reflection: The sight of the ruins served as a powerful reminder of impermanence; a once-fortified kingdom had been erased by time, leaving only a few instructional signs to guide visitors through the historical remnants of Siddhartha’s

The historical and archaeological recovery of Kapilavastu is a

journey of piecing together ancient texts with the red soil of the Nepal-India border.

3.5.6.THE REDISCOVERY OF THE “BROWN CITY”

In 1896, the archaeologist Fuhrer identified the location of Kapilavastu by following the travel diaries of Chinese pilgrims (Faxian and Xuanzang) and Pāli scriptures like the Digha Nikaya.

  • Location: The description of a settlement near a large Sal forest at the foot of the Himalayas matches the ruins found at Tilaurakot (Nepal).
  • Etymology: Scholar Senart suggested the name Kapilavastu means the “Brown City.” This is physically evident today, as the soil surrounding the ruins has a distinct reddish-yellow hue caused by iron carbonate.

3.5.7.THE PROPHECY OF ASITA

Buddhist literature, such as The Golden Light of Dharma (Ánh Đạo Vàng), vividly recreates the atmosphere of the city during the Prince’s birth. While the city celebrated with banquets, lanterns, and festivals, the hermit Asita descended from the Himalayas to visit the palace.

  • The Dream: Asita recalled Queen Maya’s dream of a six- tusked white elephant entering her right side, a divine omen of a son with incomparable merit.
  • The Prophecy: Upon seeing the infant, Asita bowed eight times but then He clarified that his tears were not for the Prince, but for himself: he was too old to live long enough to hear the Prince’s future teachings.
  • The Two Paths: Asita noted the 32 Marks of a Great Man on the Prince. He predicted that if the Prince remained in the palace, he would become a Chakravartin (Universal

Monarch); however, the “swastika” on his chest signaled he would instead become a Buddha, leading all beings to liberation.

3.5.8.A PRINCE OF COMPASSION The Legend of the Wounded Swan

This episode serves as a powerful testament to Siddhartha’s innate commitment to Ahimsa (non-violence) and the sanctity of life.

  • The Act of Mercy: When Devadatta shot a white swan, Siddhartha did not see a “trophy,” but a suffering being. He used herbs and honey to heal the bird, establishing his role as a protector.
  • The Ethical Debate: The conflict between the cousins reached the royal Devadatta argued for the right of the hunter, while Siddhartha argued for the right of the savior.
  • The Verdict: An elder settled the dispute with a profound moral truth: “Life belongs to the one who saves it, not the one who tries to destroy ”
  • The Vow of Liberation: Demonstrating selfless love, Siddhartha released the swan back to the Himalayas, pledging to spend his life defending the weak and the

3.5.9.  THE SELECTION OF PRINCESS YASODHARA

As the Prince approached the age of 19, King Suddhodana sought to anchor his son to the worldly life of a monarch through marriage.

  • The Royal Strategy: Concerned by the prophecy of Siddhartha becoming an ascetic, the King organized a grand assembly at Kapilavastu, inviting the most beautiful princesses of the land.
  • The Prince’s Aura: Despite the splendor and fine silks of the contestants, Siddhartha remained detached. His “divine aura” was so overwhelming that the candidates felt humbled, unable to bridge the spiritual gap between
  • The Fated Encounter: Princess Yasodhara (Da-du-đà-la) was the last to arrive. Her noble grace and vibrant beauty genuinely moved the Prince.
  • The Ultimate Gift: Finding all other prizes exhausted, Siddhartha gave Yasodhara his own jeweled necklace. This gesture symbolized the beginning of their union and a temporary bridge between his spiritual nature and his royal

3.5.10.  THE FOUR SIGHTS: ENCOUNTERING SUFFERING

Prince Siddhartha lived as a Bodhisattva within a beautiful palace, surrounded by luxury. However, a divine calling to fulfill his spiritual destiny persisted within him. The reality of life was revealed to him during his journeys through the four city gates:

a.The Sight of Sickness

While traveling, the Prince came upon a man groaning in agony, trembling and struggling for breath under a tree.

  • The Act of Compassion: Ignoring royal protocol, Siddhartha rushed to the man, cradling his head and wiping his
  • The Revelation: His charioteer, Channa, identified the illness as the plague and warned the Prince of its contagious He explained that countless diseases, like cholera and smallpox, strike humans silently and without warning.
  • The Prince’s Reflection: Siddhartha realized that health is fragile and that humans live in a state of “constant fear and anxiety,” with no one truly able to guarantee a happy

tomorrow.

b.The Sight of Death

Following the encounter with sickness, the Prince witnessed a funeral procession where a corpse was being carried to the riverbank for cremation.

  • The Law of Impermanence: Channa explained the grim reality of the physical body: it eventually burns to gray ash or becomes “a feast for the insects in the earth.” He noted that life can be severed by something as small as a fallen tile or a “poisonous wind.”
  • The Finality of the Moment: Siddhartha looked back at the sick man he had just tried to help, only to find the man had taken his last breath.
  • The Shift in Consciousness: Seeing ted List - he “true face of existence,” Siddhartha wept tears of He understood that every pleasure contains the seed of pain and every meeting leads to separation.

c.The Turning Point

These encounters transformed the Prince’s worldview. He concluded that the worldly life he had been leading was a distraction from a much larger crisis facing humanity.

“Pleasure only opens the door to pain; in every meeting, the seed of separation is already sown… I must find a path of liberation for humanity.”

This realization was the catalyst for his decision to leave the palace, as he could no longer find peace in a world governed by such profound suffering. He recognized that his destiny lay not in ruling a kingdom, but in finding the cure for the “plague” of existence itself.

3.5.11.  THE GREAT RENUNCIATION

After seeing the four sights, an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and finally a serene monk sitting under a tree, the Prince decided to leave worldly life. Even the news of his son’s birth, whom he named Rahula (meaning “fetter” or “bond”), could not deter him.

At midnight, he took one last look at his sleeping wife and son, vowing to return after attaining enlightenment. He rode out of the palace with Channa on his horse, Kanthaka. At the banks of the Anoma River, he cut his hair with his sword and exchanged his royal robes for the tattered rags of a hunter (a deity in disguise).

Kanthaka, overwhelmed by the sorrow of parting from his master, died of a broken heart by the river. Channa returned to the palace weeping, leaving the Prince alone in the deep forest to begin his quest for truth.

3.5.12.  THE TRAGIC FALL OF KAPILAVASTU

The city of Kapilavastu met a tragic end shortly after the Buddha’s time. It was destroyed by Prince Vidudabha (Tỳ- lưu-li), the son of King Pasenadi of Kosala and a Sakya servant girl who had been disguised as a princess.

Having been insulted by the Sakya clan during a childhood visit, where they washed his footprints with milk as if he were impure, Vidudabha vowed to “wash the city with the blood of the Sakyas.”

The Buddha intervened twice, sitting under a withered tree with no shade to meet the advancing army. When asked why he sat there, the Buddha replied: “O King, the shade of one’s kindred is remarkably comfortable.”

Moved by this, the Prince withdrew his troops. However, on the third attempt, the Buddha remained silent, and Kapilavastu was razed. Only a few survivors managed to flee toward the

Kathmandu Valley.

3.5.13.  THE FALL OF THE SAKYA CLAN

The records of Xuanzang note that the massacre of the Sakyas by King Vidudabha resulted in the deaths of 9,990 people. Not even newborn infants were spared from the cruel blades.

Account of Faxian (5th Century CE)

Faxian described a desolate Kapilavastu, a city lying along the riverbanks beneath the snow-capped Himalayas.

  • The Ruins: He found brick walls surrounded by a moat. While the palace walls showed signs of a high former culture, the city had neither a king nor subjects.
  • Markers of History: He identified the Eastern Gate, where Siddhartha departed worldly life, and the sites of legendary events: where Devadatta killed the elephant, where the Prince’s arrow struck the earth after flying 30 li (creating a spring), and where 500 Sakyas converted to
  • Commemoration: Stupas were built at locations where the earth shook six times, where the Buddha met his father after enlightenment, and where the Sakya clan was

3.5.14.        DETAILED ACCOUNT OF XUANZANG (7th Century CE)

Xuanzang provided a more meticulous record of the kingdom, which had a circumference of about 4,000 li.

  • State of the Capital: Over ten cities within the kingdom lay in utter ruin. The capital’s inner city was 14–15 li in circumference, built of red Though the soil was fertile and the few remaining people were industrious, over 1,000 monasteries lay abandoned.
  • The Palace Remains: Inside the royal enclosure, stupas

marked the specific quarters of King Suddhodana and

Queen Maya.

  • Monuments of the Prince’s Youth:
    • The Elephant Toss: At the South Gate, a stupa marked where Siddhartha threw a dead elephant to prove his strength during the royal competitions.
    • The Prince’s Family: Stupas held images of Yasodhara (the Prince’s wife) and Rahula (his son).
    • The Great Departure: At the Southeast Gate, a stupa depicted the Prince riding his white horse, Kanthaka, as he left the palace
    • The First Meditation: About 40 li northeast of the city was the site where a young Siddhartha sat under a tree during the Plowing Festival. His father was frightened to see that while the sun moved, the tree’s shadow remained stationary over the meditating

3.5.15.   LEGENDARYLOCATIONSAND THE MASSACRE

  • The Massacre Site: To the southeast of the city lay hundreds of thousands of stupas marking where the Sakyas were Their bodies were piled like straw, and their blood flowed into lakes. It is said that the gods (Indra) moved the hearts of survivors to collect and bury the remains.
  • The Nyagrodha Grove: South of the capital was the garden where the Buddha, after enlightenment, reunited with his father and preached the Dharma.
  • The Temple of the Kneeling Statue: Outside the city stood a temple of Isvara (Indra). Legend says that when the infant Siddhartha was brought there for a blessing, the stone statue stood up and bowed to him, only returning to its seat once the Prince had left.
  • The Arrow Well (Tiễn Tĩnh): Southeast of the city, a stupa marked the “Arrow Spring.” After the Prince’s arrow split an iron target, it pierced the earth so deeply that a fountain of crystal-clear water erupted. In Xuanzang’s time, the sick would drink this water or use the mud from the spring to heal their ailments.

3.5.16.  THE REMAINING RELICS OF KAPILAVASTU

  1. The City of Kapilavastu (Thành Ca-tỳ-la-vệ)

The site consists of large rectangular brick foundations. A plaque at the eastern corner marks it as the Eastern Gate, where Prince Siddhartha departed to begin his spiritual quest.

  • The Identification Debate: There is an ongoing scholarly debate regarding the exact location of the Currently, two sites are the primary candidates:
    • Tilaurakot, Nepal: Located 27 km west of Lumbini and

4.8 km northwest of Taulihawa. Most pilgrims visit this site as the traditional capital.

  • Piprahwa, India: Located in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh, 25 km from the Nepal

ii)  Niglihawa (Birthplace of Kanakamuni Buddha)

Located about 6–7 km north of Kapilavastu, this village features a pond surrounded by thickets where two fragments of an Ashoka Pillar were discovered in 1895.

  • The Inscriptions: The upper fragment (4.5m) bears 14th- century inscriptions from King Ripu Malla, including the mantra “Om Mani Padme Hum.” The lower part (1.52m) contains an Ashokan edict stating that the King enlarged the stupa of Kanakamuni Buddha in his 14th regnal year and erected the pillar in his 20th year.
  • Significance: This pillar confirms the location of the 23rd

Buddha’s birth and indirectly helps fix the position of Kapilavastu.

iii)   Gotihawa (Birthplace of Krakucchanda Buddha)

Situated 4 km southwest of Kapilavastu, this is the birthplace of

Krakucchanda Buddha (the 4th of the seven past Buddhas).

  • The Monument: Archaeologist Carlyle discovered a broken Ashoka Pillar here in The remaining stump is 3.04m tall. It is also believed to be the spot where Shakyamuni Buddha reunited with his father after attaining Enlightenment.

iv)   Kudan (The Meeting Place - Nigrodharama Grove)

Located 1 km southwest of Taulihawa, excavations by P.C. Mukherjee revealed wall foundations and water tanks.

  • Historical Context: This is identified as the Nigrodharama Garden, where King Suddhodana met the Buddha. It may also mark the site where Mahāpajāpatī Gotami (the Buddha’s foster mother) offered him a golden-threaded saffron

v)  Sagarhawa (Site of the Sakya Massacre)

Located 5 km north of Taulihawa, this site features a rectangular pond called Lamba Sagar.

  • History: Discovered by Fuhrer in 1898, this tragic location marks where King Vidudabha of Kosala massacred the Sakya clan. Hundreds of stupas were once erected here to honor the victims.

vi)   Baradhawa (The Arrow Well)

Located 6.4 km southwest of Taulihawa, this village contains ancient relics and is believed to house a stupa with the Buddha’s relics.

  • The Legend: A nearby pond is identified as the Arrow Well, created when Prince Siddhartha’s arrow pierced the earth during the royal archery competition, causing a spring of clear water to gush forth.

Summary of Significant Past Buddhas mentioned:

Buddha

Site

Significance

Kanakamuni

Niglihawa

23rd Buddha of the present age; site marked by Ashoka.

Krakucchanda

Gotihawa

4th of the seven past Buddhas.

Shakyamuni

Kapilavastu

The historical Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama).

3.5.17.    THE MODERN REVIVAL OF LUMBINI

Lumbini lay forgotten from the 14th century until the 1960s. Its modern transformation was sparked by a visit from UN Secretary-General U Thant and King Mahendra of Nepal.

The historic visit of United Nations Secretary-General U Thant and his discussions with King Mahendra92 regarding the development of Lumbini are considered the starting point for bringing this sacred site to the global stage. King Mahendra donated over 100,000,000 Rupees for the restoration of Lumbini.

 
  clip_image047.gif


The Lumbini Development Trust is the agency responsible for maintaining and accelerating the development of the site. A master plan was designed by the renowned architect Professor Kenzo Tange, who created a new layout over the ancient grounds that has since become a historic blueprint. This plan truly internationalized the sacred site, transforming it into a place of global significance and solemnity. Through the cooperation

  • Lumbini Today & the Future Prospects – A Report on the Second Seminar on Lumbini Development, Chitrakar Society, Kathmandu, Nepal, 27-6-1998, 16.

and financial support of the United Nations Development Programme, the government has fostered relationships with many nations worldwide to preserve this heritage.

 
  clip_image045.gif

Historical and Modern Development Context

  • U Thant’s Influence: As a devout Buddhist and the third Secretary-General of the UN, U Thant was moved to tears during his 1967 visit to the neglected He was the primary catalyst for the International Committee for the Development of Lumbini.
  • The Kenzo Tange Master Plan (1978): Tange, a Pritzker Prize-winning Japanese architect, designed the site based on Buddhist The plan consists of three main zones:

The Lumbini Development Trust

The trust oversees the “Master Plan” to ensure that as different nations (such as Vietnam, Thailand, China, and Germany) build their representative monasteries, the spiritual and archaeological integrity of the site remains intact.

  • The Master Plan: Designed by the famed Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, the plan transformed the ruins into a “Sacred Garden” for the world.
  • International Monastic Zone: Many countries have built temples reflecting their unique cultures, including:
    • Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu: Led by Huyen Dieu; it was one of the first modern international temples.
    • Linh Son Temple: Another major Vietnamese presence supported by the Linh Son Congregation in

◇               Chinese, Burmese, Thai, and Japanese Temples:

Creating a diverse spiritual atmosphere.

Today, Lumbini is a UNESCO World Heritage site, serving not only as a historical monument but also as a global center for peace, meditation, and Buddhist study.

Summary of Key Relics currently at Lumbini

 

Relic

Significance

Maya Devi Temple

Enshrines the exact spot of the birth and ancient brick foundations.

Ashoka Pillar

The primary archaeological proof of the Buddha’s historical birth.

Puskarni Pond

The sacred pool where Queen Maya bathed before giving birth.

Marker Stone

A stone found deep within the temple foundations indicating the precise birth spot.

 

3.6.   KUSHINAGAR:

THE SITE OF THE MAHAPARINIRVANA

Kushinagar is today a peaceful town in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Despite the intense summer heat, which can soar to 45°C, the atmosphere remains profoundly serene and solemn.

clip_image078.jpg

3.6.1.  OVERVIEW HISTORY OF KUSHINAGAR

The history of Kushinagar (ancient Kusinārā) is uniquely somber and sacred. While Lumbini marks the beginning, Kushinagar marks the Mahaparinirvana, the Great Decease, of the Buddha.

a. THE FINAL JOURNEY (5th Century BCE)

When the Buddha was 81 years old, he and the Venerable Ananda left Vulture Peak to journey toward Northern India. After staying overnight at Nalanda, he crossed the Ganges River at Varanasi for the last time and proceeded to the village of Beluva, near Vaishali.

The Final Rainy Season Retreat

While staying at Beluva for the rainy season retreat (Vassa), the Buddha fell gravely ill. He revealed to Ananda that his physical strength was waning due to old age and predicted that he would enter Parinirvana within three months.

The Three Hints to Ananda

In Vaishali, the Buddha dropped a profound hint to Ananda three times regarding the possibility of extending his life:

“Ananda, whoever has developed, practiced, and mastered the Four Bases of Power (Iddhipada), making them a vehicle and a foundation, could, if he so desired, remain for an aeon (kappa) or the remainder of an aeon. The Tathagata has mastered these four bases. If he wished, the Tathagata could remain for an aeon.”93

However, Ananda, whose mind was clouded at that moment, failed to understand the suggestion and did not invite the Buddha to stay. Consequently, the Buddha relinquished the will to live further. When Ananda finally realized the gravity of the words and begged the Buddha to remain, the Buddha refused, stating it was too late, as he had already promised Mara that he would depart in three months.

The Final Gathering at Mahavana

Despite his illness, the Buddha traveled to the Kutagarasala (Gabled Hall) in the Great Forest (Mahavana) of Vaishali. He requested that all monks in the vicinity assemble so he could deliver his final summary of the path to liberation.

The 37 Factors of Enlightenment

The Buddha exhorted his disciples to preserve and practice the core teachings he had realized, categorized as the 37 Factors of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiya-dhamma), to ensure the longevity of the Dhamma for the benefit of gods and humans:

 
  clip_image047.gif


“O Monks, those Dhamma which the Tathāgata has realized and taught to you, you must learn them thoroughly, realize them through practice, develop them, and propagate them so that this holy life may endure and last for a long time, for the welfare of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world, and for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans. And what are those Dhamma realized by the Tathāgata? They are the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, I, p. 30.

Four Right Efforts, the Four Bases of Power, the Five Faculties, the Five Powers, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path.”94

These serve as the “compass” for practitioners to reach liberation.

  • The Last Convert: at the Sal Grove of the Mallas of Kusinārā, despite his physical weakness, the Buddha accepted the wanderer Subhadda as his final
  • The Final Words: Lying between two Sal trees, he gave his last exhortation to the monks: “All conditioned things are subject to decay. Strive on with diligence” (Vayadhammā sankhārā appamādena sampādetha).

3.6.2. WHY DID THE BUDDHA CHOOSE KUSHINAGAR?

Before passing away, the Buddha explained to Venerable Ananda why he chose this small town over larger, more powerful kingdoms:

  • The Mahasudassana Sutta: To recount the virtues of a great Chakravartin (Universal Monarch) who ruled this land in the distant past.
  • Converting Subhadda: To guide Subhadda, the final disciple to be directly ordained by the Buddha before his passing.
  • Distribution of Relics: The presence of the Brahmin Drona,
  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, vol II, 160. The 37 Factors of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiyadhamma)
  • Four Foundations of Mindfulness: Body, Feelings, Mind, and Mental
  • Four Right Exertions: Preventing and overcoming evil; arising and increasing good.
  • Four Bases of Power: Desire, Energy, Consciousness, and
  • Five Faculties & Five Powers: Faith, Energy, Mindfulness, Concentration, and
  • Seven Factors of Enlightenment: Mindfulness, Investigation, Energy, Joy, Tranquility, Concentration, and Equanimity.
  • Noble Eightfold Path: Right View, Resolve, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, and

who possessed the authority and wisdom to mediate and fairly divide the Buddha’s relics among the various kingdoms.

  • Karmic Connection: In previous lifetimes, the Buddha had laid down his life in this location seven times; this was to be the eighth and final

3.6.3. THE LASTMEALAND BOUNDLESS COMPASSION

When the Buddha arrived at the village of Pava, Chunda (Kunda), the son of a metalsmith, offered him a meal containing Sukara-maddava (often translated as “tender boar’s meat” or “fragrant mushrooms”). After eating, the Buddha instructed Chunda to bury the remains, noting that no one in the realms of gods, humans, Maras, or Brahmas could digest such food except for a Tathāgata.

Soon after, Chunda was filled with deep sorrow and regret, fearing he had caused the Buddha’s illness. The Buddha consoled him, praising the boundless merit of his offering:

“There are two offerings of food that bear equal merit and equal fruit, far surpassing all others. What are the two? One is the meal before the Tathāgata attains Supreme Enlightenment, and the second is the meal before the Tathāgata enters Parinirvana. These two offerings result in increased longevity, beauty, happiness, fame, rebirth in heaven, and great authority.”95

Historical and Botanical Notes

  • Sukara-maddava: This term remains a subject of academic While “mushrooms” is a common modern interpretation (as seen in your text), some scholars suggest “pork” or “truffles.” The core spiritual point is the Buddha’s compassion in protecting others from tainted food.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The Kakutthā River: Located between Pava and Kushinagar, this is where the Buddha took his final bath and
  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-180.

drank water before reaching the Sala Grove.

  • Two Peerless Offerings: This teaching establishes the importance of intention (Cetanā). Even though the meal led to illness, Chunda’s intention was pure, making his merit equal to that of Sujata, who offered the milk rice before the

On the road to Kushinagar, the Buddha stopped in the village of Pava. A blacksmith named Chunda offered the Buddha his final meal, which included a dish known as Sukara-maddava (interpreted as forest mushrooms or truffle).

The Illness: After eating, the Buddha became severely ill with dysentery. He instructed Chunda to bury the remaining food, as only a Tathagata could digest it.

Infinite Compassion: Seeing Chunda’s overwhelming grief and regret, the Buddha comforted him. He explained that two meals in a Buddha’s life bring the greatest merit: the meal before Enlightenment and the meal before Passing. He thus relieved Chunda’s guilt, transforming a painful event into an act of supreme blessing.

3.6.4.        THE    FINAL    WATER   AND    THE    GOLDEN RADIANCE

Following the meal at Chunda’s home, the Buddha’s illness became severe. While traveling toward Kushinagar, he rested by a small stream. Though the water had been muddied by 500 passing wagons, the Buddha sent Ananda to fetch a drink. Miraculously, as Ananda approached, the water became crystal clear. 96

The Encounter with Pukkusa

 
  clip_image047.gif


While resting, Pukkusa, a young nobleman of the Malla clan and former disciple of Āḷāra Kālāma, approached. He praised

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-180.

the deep concentration of his former teacher, who once sat undisturbed while five hundred carts passed by. The Buddha then recounted a greater feat of concentration:

“Pukkusa, what is more difficult? To remain conscious but unaware of carts passing, or to remain conscious and undisturbed while a torrential rainstorm rages with thunder and lightning that kills two farmers and four oxen nearby?”97

The Buddha shared that he had once experienced such a storm at Atumā and remained in perfect tranquility. Deeply moved, Pukkusa declared: “My faith in my former teacher has been swept away like a leaf in a great wind.” He took refuge in the Triple Gem and offered the Buddha two sets of golden-hued robes.

The Radiance of the Tathāgata

When Ananda placed the golden robes upon the Buddha, he was astonished to see the robes’ brilliance fade in comparison to the Buddha’s skin. The Buddha explained that a Tathagata’s skin shines with such clarity only twice:

  1. The night he attains Full Enlightenment.
  2. The night he enters Mahaparinirvana.

“Ananda, there are two occasions when the skin of the Tathāgata becomes exceedingly bright and pure: the night he attains Supreme Enlightenment and the night he enters Parinirvana. Tonight, Ananda, in the final watch, at the Upavattana of Kushinagar, the Tathāgata will pass away.”98

3.6.5.  THE ENTRANCE INTO PARINIRVANA

 
  clip_image047.gif


The Buddha arrived at the Upavattana Sala Grove of the Mallas in Kushinagar. He instructed Ananda to prepare his bed

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-180.
  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon, Translated by Thích Minh Châu, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), Volume I, 1991, pages 665–6.

between two Twin Sala Trees, with his head pointing North.

 
  clip_image080.jpg

Twin Sala Trees, Mahaparinirvana Stupa,

Kushinagar, May 07 1997.

 

The Final Instruction on Worship

As the trees bloomed out of season and divine music filled the air, the Buddha clarified:

“Ananda, this is not how one truly honors the Tathagata. The monk, nun, or lay disciple who practices the Dharma correctly and lives according to the Teachings… they are the ones who truly honor and worship the Tathagata with the highest offering.”

Then, he instructed the assembly of monks to take the Precepts as their Teacher after his passing:

“Ananda, the Dhamma and the Vinaya that I have taught and proclaimed, after I am gone, let these be your Teacher.”

“O monks, all conditioned things are impermanent. Strive on

with diligence.”

These were the final words of the Tathāgata. Then, the Blessed One entered the first jhāna. Emerging from the first jhāna, he entered the second. Emerging from the second, he entered the third. Emerging from the third, he entered the fourth. Emerging from the fourth, he entered the Sphere of Infinite Space. Emerging from the Sphere of Infinite Space, he entered the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness. Emerging from the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, he entered the Sphere of Nothingness. Emerging from the Sphere of Nothingness, he entered the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception. Emerging from the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception, he entered the Cessation of Perception and Feeling (Saññā- vedayita-nirodha).

Emerging from the Cessation of Perception and Feeling, he re- entered the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception. From there, he descended through the Sphere of Nothingness, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, and the Sphere of Infinite Space, returning to the fourth jhāna. From the fourth, he descended to the third, the second, and the first.

Emerging from the first jhāna, he ascended once more to the second and the third. Finally, entering the fourth jhāna and emerging from it, the Blessed One immediately attained Parinirvāṇa.99

Commentary and Context

  1. The Final Exhortation
 
  clip_image047.gif


The Buddha’s final words emphasize two pillars of the spiritual

  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon, Translated by Thích Minh Châu, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), Volume I, 1991, pages 665–6.

life:

  1. The Nine Meditative Attainments (Samāpatti)

The text describes a systematic “ascending and descending” through the levels of concentration to demonstrate the Buddha’s total mastery over the mind even at the moment of death.

  • 1st - 4th Jhāna: The Rupa-Jhānas (Meditations of Form).
  • 5th - 8th Jhāna: The Arupa-Jhānas (Formless Meditations).
  • 9th Level: Saññā-vedayita-nirodha, the highest state where all mental activity and feelings cease.

3.  Parinirvāṇa from the Fourth Jhāna

It is significant that the Buddha did not pass away from the highest formless state or the state of cessation. Instead, he returned to the Fourth Jhāna. This state is characterized by Equanimity and Mindfulness (Upekkhā-sati-pārisuddhi), representing a perfect balance of mental clarity and stillness, providing the most stable foundation for the final transition into the “Unconditioned.”

4.  CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE The Four Holy Sites

The Buddha identified the four places that faithful followers should visit to cultivate merit:

  1. Lumbini: Where the Buddha was
  2. Bodh Gaya: Where the Buddha attained Enlightenment.
  3. Sārnāth: Where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of
  4. Kushinagar: Where the Buddha entered

3.6.6.  THE FUNERAL AND THE RELICS

 

The Malla clan spent six days honoring the body. On the seventh day, they prepared for cremation at the Makuta-Bandhana Stupa. However, the pyre would not ignite until Mahakassapa, the Buddha’s great disciple, arrived to pay his final respects.

Once Mahakassapa circumambulated the pyre three times and bowed at the Buddha’s feet, the fire ignited spontaneously. The body burned completely, leaving behind no ash, only the sacred relics (Sarira), which looked like pearls or grains. Divine rain and water from the Sala trees eventually extinguished the flames.

“Venerable Mahākāśyapa arrived at the Mallas’ shrine, Makuta-Bandhana, and approached the funeral pyre of the Buddha. With his robe arranged over one shoulder, he clasped his hands in reverence, circumambulated the pyre three times, and prostrated at the feet of the Buddha; the five hundred monks followed suit. Once the salutations were complete, the funeral pyre ignited spontaneously.

As the physical body of the Buddha burned, from the outer skin to the inner skin, the flesh, the tendons, and the fluid between the joints, everything was consumed, leaving behind neither ash nor soot, but only the sacred bone relics (Sarīra). Just as when oil burns, it is completely consumed without leaving ash or charcoal. All five hundred layers of wrapping cloth, including the innermost and outermost layers, were burned away. When the Blessed One’s body was fully consumed, a stream of water poured down from the heavens, and another stream gushed forth from the Sāla trees to extinguish the pyre. The Mallas of Kushinagar also used water scented with many kinds of perfumes to douse the flames. Then, the Mallas placed the Buddha’s relics in their assembly hall for seven days, honoring, revering, and making offerings with dances, songs, music, and many garlands of incense.”100

 
  clip_image047.gif


Historical and Symbolic Context

  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-5.

a.  The Role of Mahākāśyapa (Đại Ca-Diếp)

Mahākāśyapa was the most senior of the Buddha’s disciples and was traveling from Pava to Kushinagar when the Buddha passed. Tradition holds that the funeral pyre would not ignite until he arrived to pay his final respects. This event signifies the passing of the “leadership” of the Sangha to Mahākāśyapa, who would soon after preside over the First Buddhist Council.

b.   The Spontaneous Ignition and Extinguishing

The spontaneous combustion of the pyre and its miraculous extinguishing by celestial and nature-bound water (from the sky and the trees) emphasizes the Buddha’s status as a Mahāpurusha (Great Man). It illustrates that even the elements, fire and water, obeyed the cosmic order (Dhamma) surrounding his passing.

c.The Nature of the Relics (Xá lợi)

The text notes that the body left no ash, only “bone relics.” In Buddhist tradition, these relics are classified into different types:

  • Pearl-like relics: Small, crystalline spheres of various
  • Bone fragments: Larger pieces from the forehead, teeth, or

These relics were eventually divided into eight portions and distributed among the various kingdoms, leading to the construction of the first great Stupas.

d. Makuta-Bandhana Stupa

The Makuta-Bandhana (meaning “The Binding of the Crown”) was the coronation hall of the Malla kings. Choosing this site for the cremation signified that the Buddha was treated with the highest honors of a Chakravartin (Universal Monarch).

Key Figures and Terms

 

 

Term/Person

Role/Significance

Ananda

The Buddha’s loyal attendant and primary interlocutor during the final days.

Subhadda

The last person to be ordained as an Arahant by the Buddha himself.

Mahakassapa

The disciple whose arrival was necessary for the cremation to begin.

Sala Trees

The “Twin Trees” that bloomed out of season to honor the Buddha’s passing.

 

Chunda

The blacksmith whose final meal was declared equal in merit to the meal before Enlightenment.

This narrative emphasizes that the Buddha’s passing was not a moment for despair, but a final lesson on the law of Impermanence (Anicca) and the importance of self-reliance in the practice of the Dharma.

3.6.7.  THE HOLY RELICS (SARĪRA)

In the cremation of enlightened Arahants, relics (often described as crystal-like) are frequently found, which are not visible to the naked eye. The term Sarīra is used to refer to these physical remains. The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta explicitly states that after the Buddha’s cremation, there were “no ashes… only bone relics remained.”101 Archaeologists have indeed discovered bone fragments belonging to the Buddha.

In the context of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, sarīra originally referred to the Buddha’s physical body, but after cremation, it specifically designated his relics. To avoid ambiguity, the term śarīra (relating to the body or concrete physical matter) is often most appropriate when referring to these holy remains.

3.6.8.  THE MERIT OF WORSHIPING RELICS

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Digha Nikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, II, 164-5.

Venerating the Buddha’s relics is not for the sake of the Buddha himself, but for the merit of those who come to pay respects and offer with a sincere heart. As stated in the scriptures:

“When one remembers: ‘This is the stupa of the Tathagata’s relics…’, their mind becomes peaceful. Upon the dissolution of their body, they will be reborn in a higher realm, among the devas. This is why stupas are built at crossroads.”102

3.6.9.  THE DIVISION OF THE RELICS

When the news of the Buddha’s Parinirvana spread, the leaders of eight nations sought to claim his relics. A Brahmin named Dona acted as an intermediary, reciting a verse to advise them:

“Listen, O Lords, to my word. Patience was taught by the Buddha. It is not good that there should be strife over the distribution of the Enlightened One’s remains. Let us unite in harmony and love, joyfully dividing the relics into eight portions.”

Dona divided the relics into eight equal parts for the messengers of:

  1. Magadha, ruled by King Ajātasattu.
  2. The Licchavīs of Vesāli.
  3. The Sakyas of Kapilavatthu.
  4. The Bulis of Allakappa.
  5. The Kolis of Rāmagāma.

6.      The Brahmin of Vethadīpa.

  1. The Mallas of Pāvā.
  2. The Mallas of Kusinārā (Kushinagar).

Each city built a stupa to enshrine its portion. Dona himself built

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vietnamese Buddhist Canon, Translated by Thích Minh Châu, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), Volume I, 1991, pages 665–6.

a stupa for the vessel used to measure the relics. The Moriyās of Pipphalavana arrived too late and received only the charcoal from the funeral pyre; they built a stupa for the embers in their city. Thus, ten stupas were initially erected: eight for the relics, the ninth for the vessel, and the tenth for the embers. Later, King Ashoka is said to have further divided these portions to build 84,000 stupas across Asia.

3.6.10.          HE    ARCHAEOLOGICAL     RECOVERY    OF KUSHINAGAR

Following the Buddha’s passing, Kushinagar was annexed by Magadha. It eventually fell into decline until the 3rd century BCE, when King Ashoka revitalized it with stupas and pillars.

Chronicles of the Pilgrims

  • Faxian (399–414 CE): Noted three stupas and two pillars, indicating a thriving center of
  • The Gupta Era (4th–6th Century CE): Buddhist art reached its zenith. An artist named Haribhadra carved the magnificent Reclining Buddha statue (approx. 413–455 CE) that remains the centerpiece of the Nirvana Temple
  • Xuanzang (629–644 CE): Found the city in He identified the home of Chunda the blacksmith and the Great Brick Stupa containing the Reclining Buddha. He also noted an Ashoka pillar nearly 200 feet tall, though it was tilting.
  • The Dark Ages: Between the 7th and 12th centuries, royal support Kushinagar was eventually razed by Islamic invasions in the 13th century and swallowed by the jungle.

Modern Rediscovery

  • Alexander Cunningham (1861): Confirmed that the site

known locally as Kasia was indeed ancient Kushinagar.

  • C.L. Carlleyle (1876): Excavated the massive brick mound and rediscovered the shattered Reclining Buddha statue, which was later painstakingly restored.
  • Ph. Vogel (1904–1907): Formally excavated the foundations of ten monasteries dating from the 4th to the 11th centuries.
  • Reconstruction (1956): The current Nirvana Temple was completed to celebrate the 2,500th Buddha It features a vaulted roof and large windows, housing the restored Reclining Buddha.

Current Landmarks

  • Nirvana Stupa: Located immediately behind the temple, bone fragments were discovered at its base.
  • Ramabhar Stupa: A large structure located to the east, identifying the traditional site of the Buddha’s cremation.
  • Modern Viharas: In the 21st century, Myanmar Buddhists and others have restored various monuments, including the small stupa marking the spot between the Twin Sala Trees where the Buddha drew his final

This history highlights Kushinagar’s journey from a sacred grove to a forgotten ruin, and finally to its status today as a global center of pilgrimage for those seeking to reflect on the Buddha’s final teaching of Impermanence.

3.6.11.  MODERN MONUMENTS IN KUSHINAGAR

  1. THE NIRVANA TEMPLE

Less than 100 meters from the main gate stands the Nirvana Temple, the primary sanctuary in Kushinagar where monastics and pilgrims gather for worship. In 1956, to commemorate

the 2,500th Anniversary of the Buddha’s Birth, the Indian government reconstructed the temple with a vaulted dome and large barred windows on four sides.

  • The Discovery: Carlleyle first discovered this site in 1876, finding a statue of the reclining Buddha with a broken pedestal. The statue is 6.1 meters long, carved from a single block of red sandstone. It represents the Buddha entering Nirvana, lying on his right side and facing West.
  • Artistic Details: The Buddha rests peacefully, facing North, with his head cradled by his right The palms and soles are carved with lotus patterns, one of the 32 major marks of a Great Man.
  • Symbolic Figures: On the western wall of the temple are three small niches. The left figure (a woman with long hair and a grieving expression) likely represents the Malla clan mourning the Buddha’s passing. The central and right figures (serene monastics) represent those who have transcended desire and remain composed in the face of death.
  • History: An inscription on the pedestal attributes the offering of the statue to Venerable Haribala during the reign of King Kumargupta (413–455 CE). Recent 1976 excavations found fragments of bone and charcoal, suggesting the site was burned during historical invasions.

ii.   THE NIRVANA STUPA

Located directly behind the temple, the Nirvana Stupa was built over the very spot where the Buddha passed away between the Twin Sala Trees.

  • Structure: This is a 72-meter-high brick monument. Excavations found charcoal and ash within the earliest inner layers, confirming its role as a cremation or memorial site.
  • Votive Offerings: A copper plate found inside contains the

Nidana Sūtra (Sūtra of Causes) in Sanskrit, further crediting Venerable Haribala with the temple’s development. The stupa was fully restored in 1927 and again in 1972 through the generous contributions of Burmese Buddhists.

 
  clip_image082.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương meditating at the Parinirvana Temple, Kushinagar,

remembering the grace of the Buddha, May 7, 1997.

 

iii.  ARCHAEOLOGICAL ENCLOSURE

The area surrounding the Stupa and Temple is a vast archaeological zone filled with the brick foundations of ancient monasteries and shrines. These ruins serve as physical evidence of the flourishing Buddhist activities that took place here between the 4th and 11th centuries.

iv.  MATHA-KUAR SHRINE (The Passing of the Prince)

About 200 meters northwest of the Nirvana Stupa is the Matha- Kuar Shrine. It houses a 3.05-meter-high statue of the Buddha carved from black stone, dating to the 5th century.

  • The Name: “Matha-Kuar” translates to “The Passing of the Prince.” Local tradition holds that even after the Enlightenment, the Sakya clan still viewed the Buddha as their beloved Prince.
  • Iconography: The statue is in the Bhumisparsha Mudra (Earth-witness gesture), representing the moment the Buddha conquered Mara. Local belief identifies this as the spot where the Buddha gave his final teaching before moving to the Sala grove to enter Parinirvana. The statue, found broken in two by Carlleyle, was restored and enshrined in a modern temple by a Burmese delegation in 1927.

Monument

Main Feature

Historical Context

Nirvana Temple

6.1m Red Sandstone Reclining Buddha

Offering by Haribala (5th Century).

Nirvana Stupa

45m high brick mound

Enshrines the spot of the Parinirvana.

Matha-Kuar

3m Black Stone Preaching Buddha

Commemorates the “Prince” of the Sakyas.

v.    THE CREMATION STUPA (RAMABHAR STUPA)

Located approximately 1.6 kilometers east of the Matha-Kuar Shrine, on the road from Kasia to Deoria, lies the site where the Buddha’s physical body was cremated.

  • Structure: This is a massive circular mound, shaped like a giant drum, with a diameter of 34.24m sitting on a base of 24m. It stands 15.4m high.
  • Symbolism: The architecture reflects the harmony of the universe, representing the five elements of life: the square base for Earth, followed by Space, Fire, Water, and Light.
  • Surroundings: The stupa is situated within a beautifully maintained flower Its diameter is twice that of the

main Nirvana Stupa, and the area is dotted with the ancient foundations of monasteries and temples.

vi.  THE KUSHINAGAR MUSEUM

Situated across from the Sri Lanka-Japan Monastery, the museum is an imposing building nestled among lush greenery. It houses a vast collection of Buddha statues and precious artifacts unearthed by archaeologists at Kushinagar, providing a historical bridge to the city’s ancient Buddhist glory.

3.6.12.  INTERNATIONAL TEMPLES IN THE VICINITY

Kushinagar is a vibrant hub of modern Buddhist activity, with temples from various national traditions:

i.  LINH SON TEMPLE (VIETNAM)

The first temple encountered on the road to the sacred site. Originally built between 1948-1950 by a Chinese nun as “Song Lam Tu,” it was later entrusted to Venerable Huyen Vi (Linh Son Congregation, France).

  • Features: A 2m-tall outdoor Avalokiteshvara statue and miniature models of the Four Great Holy
  • Activities: It offers comfortable lodging for pilgrims and is active in local charity, such as providing food for the poor and building schools for needy children.

ii.   BURMESE TEMPLE

Located adjacent to Linh Son Temple, this large complex was built in 1945.

  • Architecture: Features artistic, sweeping curved roofs. A highlight is a rectangular lotus pond with a central “One- Pillar”
  • Art: The brick perimeter walls are decorated with colorful frescoes depicting the life of the Buddha.

iii.  TIBETAN TEMPLE

Located near the Nirvana Temple, this modest complex features a lecture hall on the ground floor and a main sanctuary on the upper level. While it provides housing for traveling Tibetan monks, the site remains quiet compared to Tibetan centers in Bodh Gaya or Lumbini.

iv.  THAI TEMPLE

Currently under construction, adjacent to the Tibetan Temple. At the time of the author’s writing, monastics were residing in temporary tents to oversee the project’s development.

v.  SRI LANKA-JAPAN MONASTERY

Managed by Sri Lankan monastics, this temple features a circular vaulted architecture inspired by the Nirvana Temple.

  • Sanctuary: Contains a Buddha statue in the Japanese style and walls adorned with beautiful Japanese-style paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
  • Facilities: The monastery hosts an International Meditation Center, a free medical clinic, and guest houses for

Kushinagar remains a site of profound reflection, where the ancient silence of the cremation grounds meets the chanting of modern international communities, all honoring the Buddha’s final passage into peace.

vi. THE THAI TEMPLE AT KUSHINAGAR

Returning from the Japanese temple toward the Nirvana Temple, one encounters the Thai Temple, supported by the Thai government.

  • Grandeur: This is arguably the most magnificent Thai temple in all of It features a vast sanctuary on the first floor with golden vaulted roofs that showcase the pinnacle

of Thai Buddhist art.

  • Atmosphere: The grounds are designed like a royal garden, with sprawling courtyards, lush greenery, and weeping It also serves as a center for education and residence for a large community of monastics.

vii.  SUMMARY OF MODERN KUSHINAGAR SITES

 

Site

Type

Key Significance

Ramabhar Stupa

Archaeological

The historic site of the Buddha’s cremation.

Kushinagar Museum

 

Educational

Preservation of 1,500 years of unearthed artifacts.

Linh Son / Burmese

 

Religious

Active centers for Vietnamese and Burmese pilgrimage.

International Zone

 

Cultural

Represents the global unity of the Buddhist faith.
  • GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCE

 

From Kushinagar to

Distance (km)

Gorakhpur

55 km

Lumbini

175 km

Varanasi (Sārnāth)

270 km

Sravasti

274 km

 

3.7.                            THE JOURNEY TO AMARAVATHI

The pilgrimage shifted from North India to the state of Andhra Pradesh to visit the great Amaravathi Stupa.

Transit at Vijayawada

 

The group traveled by train from Madras toward Hyderabad, disembarking at Vijayawada at 3:30 AM.

Indian Tea Culture: While waiting at the station, the group enjoyed “Masala Tea,” brewed with fresh milk, sugar, and ginger. In India, tea is a fundamental part of daily life, with “tea time” being a strictly observed tradition for everyone from children to professors.

Vijayawada: Located along the Krishna River, this industrial center serves as the gateway for pilgrims visiting Amaravathi. It is often referred to as the “Sanchi of Andhra Pradesh.”

The Great Stupa of Amaravathi

The group hired a taxi for the 30 km journey west of Vijayawada. The road passed through arid fields and thorny forests, reflecting a humble, rural landscape.

Historical Origins: Originally known as Dhammakada or Dhanyakataka, Amaravathi was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty. King Ashoka is said to have sent the elder Mahadeva to establish a stupa here.

3.7.1.     OVERVIEW HISTORY OF THE AMARAVATHI STUPA

The Great Stupa of Amaravathi (also known as Maha- Chaitya) was once one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist monuments in the world. Located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, its history spans over two millennia, from its humble origins to its eventual discovery as a “lost” treasure.

1.  Origins and Early Development

  • Foundation (c. 3rd Century BCE): Most historians believe the stupa was first established during the reign of Emperor Ashoka the Archaeological evidence suggests it

began as a modest structure intended to house sacred relics of the Buddha.

  • The Satavahana Golden Age (1st – 2nd Century CE): Under the patronage of the Satavahana kings, the stupa was significantly expanded. It was during this period that the monument became a masterpiece of architecture, featuring the distinctive white limestone (often called “Palnad marble”) and intricate carvings that define the Amaravathi School of Art.

2.  Architectural Significance

The stupa was famous for its sheer scale and “Ayaka” platforms, four rectangular projections at the cardinal points that held five pillars each, representing the five major events in Buddha’s life.

  • Diameter: Approximately 50 meters.
  • Height: Nearly 30 meters.
  • Artistic Style: Unlike the more austere Sanchi Stupa, Amaravathi featured highly decorative, narrative reliefs depicting the Jataka tales (previous lives of the Buddha) and the life of Gautama

3.  Decline and Abandonment (14th – 18th Century)

Shift in Patronage: As Buddhism declined in India and Hinduism regained prominence under subsequent dynasties, the stupa lost its financial and royal support.

  • Decline and Recovery: By the time Xuanzang visited in 693 CE, the site was In the 19th century, much of the site was damaged as locals took stones for building materials. Today, the surviving railings and sculptures depicting the Jataka tales (the Buddha’s past lives) are preserved in the Madras Museum and the local Amaravathi Museum.
  • Neglect: By the 14th century, the site was largely

Over the centuries, it became covered by earth and vegetation, eventually appearing as a large mound known locally as Deepaladinne (The Hill of Lights).

4.  Rediscovery and “The Amaravathi Marbles”

  • Continued Devotion: Inscriptions indicate that as late as 1344 CE, Sri Lankan pilgrims were still visiting and performing repairs on the stupa, proving its enduring sanctity over a millennium.
  • 1797: The site was rediscovered by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, a British He found local people using the ancient stones to build modern houses.
  • Excavation and Loss: Throughout the 19th century, various excavations were carried out. Unfortunately, many of the finest sculptures were shipped away to prevent further local
  • Current Locations: Today, the surviving pieces (frequently called the Amaravathi Marbles) are Large collections are held in:
    • The British Museum (London)
    • The Government Museum (Chennai)
    • The Archaeological Museum (Amaravathi)

The Amaravathi Stupa was once larger and more ornate than the famous Sanchi Stupa. Its artistic style, characterized by intricate marble carvings and delicate narratives, influenced Buddhist art across East and Southeast Asia.

The exploration of Amaravathi reveals that Buddhism was not just a northern phenomenon but a deeply rooted culture that flourished in the south, producing some of the world’s most sophisticated architectural wonders.

3.7.2.WORSHIP AT THE AMARAVATHI STUPA

We walked around the stupa to pay our respects and take photos for our records. This ancient monastery was built in a circular style, similar to the Peace Pagodas built by the Japanese at Vulture Peak and Vaishali. Today, the stupa remains a massive mound of earth and sand, topped by a dome and surrounded by its foundation. In a few places, fragments of marble still glisten with a faint luster. Surrounding the stupa are stone slabs carved with scenes from the life of the Buddha and the Sangha. Tradition holds that the Buddha himself once spent a rainy season retreat at this very location.

After taking commemorative photos, we visited the Amaravathi Museum. It has a modest perimeter but is quite charming, with green grass and colorful flowers scattered about. Since it didn’t open until 10:00 AM and we had 30 minutes to wait, we wandered around the immediate area. We saw a small, sparse market where a few people sat on the ground selling food covered in flies… A few small shops sold a scattering of items, and a bus sat empty waiting for passengers while the driver sat listlessly, looking out into the distance with a neutral expression. The life of the people here is so poor, monotonous, and pitiful.

I met a few Indian men arriving at work at the museum. Since the gatekeeper had not yet arrived, we struck up a conversation. Because they work at a museum and often host foreign delegations, they knew a bit of English. I asked one gentleman how much he earned per month. He said the government paid him 3,000 Rupees. Ah! That is a decent wage for this area. Since those working here are relatively bright and know some English, the salary is stable. He mentioned he had just started the job and was very happy to have it, as he had to support a stay-at-home wife and seven children in school. I was shocked that salary my would be gone in an instant, but fortunately, it is stable compared to other jobs where the pay is much lower.

Once the doors opened, he kindly guided us through every section. Once again, I had the honor of viewing and bowing before the Buddha’s Relics (the first time being in Sārnāth with the delegation of the Venerable and Monk BC). The relics were kept in a glass case, shimmering and about the size of a soybean. I purchased a book about the history of the Amaravathi Stupa and its remaining ruins.

We gave the gentleman 20 Rupees as a tip and bid him farewell. Halfway back, I noticed a very large university on the right: Nagarjuna University. They revere Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, the founder of the world-famous Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school of Emptiness, which is significant not just to Buddhism but to other academic and philosophical fields. At various Indian universities, Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka philosophy attracts many students, including non-Buddhists, who come to research and study. The campus was large and peaceful, surrounded by lush greenery and multi-colored flowers. Since it was summer, the students were away on break, making it feel quiet; everything looked brand new.

3.7.3.  THE JOURNEY TO HYDERABAD

We returned to the town of Vijayawada exactly at noon. According to our schedule, we weren’t supposed to leave for Hyderabad until the next morning, and we had already pre- purchased bus tickets. However, seeing that we had enough time to make it and feeling quite restless in the stifling heat, we decided that leaving was better than staying. We took the loss, exchanged our tickets, and left immediately at 3:00 PM. This allowed us just enough time to eat, shower, and set off without wasting any more time.

The bus had air conditioning and even featured videos for entertainment along the way. Since this was a true “Deluxe” bus, not just in name, but in quality, the passengers were very polite, well-dressed, and clean. After traveling for over an hour, I

noticed the bus had not yet stopped for a restroom break. Because of the scorching heat, we had consumed an incredible amount of soda and lemon water. Unable to bear it any longer, Lal Zikpuii shouted for the driver to let us off. The driver replied in Hindi, “Mein jalti vuktee hun” (I am about to stop). I whispered to Lal Zikpuii that when they say “about to,” it hasn’t happened yet, and when they say “already there,” it means it’s coming soon, who knows how much longer it will be? We insisted on getting off immediately.

The driver finally stopped, and we scrambled out. Going to the bathroom on the side of the road meant simply finding a bush to hide behind. Unfortunately, the driver stopped in an area with very few trees (I wondered if he was playing a prank on us!). We had no choice but to run quite a distance to find a thicket. After resolving our “nature call,” we felt as light as clouds and hopped back to our seats, only to realize that only the four of us girls had gotten off. No one else on the bus had moved. “Their kidneys must be very strong,” I whispered to Yansa and Lal Zikpuii.

Just as the bus turned the left corner, it arrived at a large restaurant and stopped. The attendant announced a 30-minute break for food and rest. Ah! It finally dawned on me that’s why no one else got off earlier. They were regulars on this route and knew the stop was coming, whereas we, on our first trip ever, had forced the driver to stop because we couldn’t wait. Realizing our mistake, we looked at each other and laughed it off.

3.8.   NAGARJUNA’S ISLAND (NĀGĀRJUNA-KOṆḌA)

3.8.1.  OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF NĀGĀRJUNA- KOṆḌA

Nāgārjuna-koṇḍa, located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, is one of India’s most significant archaeological sites.

Historically known as Vijayapuri, it served as the capital of the Ikshvaku Dynasty (2nd–3rd Century CE) and was a premier center for Buddhist learning, named after the great philosopher Nāgārjuna.

 
  clip_image084.jpg

i.  A Sanctuary Saved from the Waters

The modern history of Nāgārjuna-koṇḍa is defined by a massive engineering and preservation feat:

  • The Submergence: In the 1960s, the construction of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam threatened to submerge the entire
  • The Rescue: Archeologists undertook a monumental project to excavate and relocate the ruins to higher ground.
  • The Island Museum: Today, the site is unique because the museum and reconstructed monuments are situated on an island in the middle of a man-made lake, accessible only by

ii.  Architectural and Religious Significance

Nāgārjuna-koṇḍa was a melting pot of Buddhist sects, primarily the Mahayana tradition. It mirrored the “Amaravathi style” but

added its own regional flair.

  • The Mahachaitya: The Great Stupa was the heart of the Excavations revealed a tooth relic, believed to be of the Buddha, encased in gold and silver caskets.
  • Monasteries and Temples: The valley contained over 30 Interestingly, it also housed some of the earliest structural Hindu temples, showing a period of religious coexistence.
  • The Amphitheater: One of the most unique finds was a tiered, Roman-style amphitheater, suggesting influence from maritime trade with the Roman Empire.

iii.  The Legacy of Acharya Nāgārjuna

The site is named after the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school.

  • Philosophy of Emptiness (Śūnyatā): Nāgārjuna’s teachings at this site revolutionized Buddhist thought, arguing that all phenomena are “empty” of intrinsic nature and exist only in dependence on other factors.
  • The University: Like Nālandā in the north, Nāgārjuna- koṇḍa functioned as a massive university attracting students from Sri Lanka, China, and Gandhara.

Key Archaeological Features

 

Feature

Significance

Swastika-shaped Stupa

A rare architectural form symbolizing the wheel of Dharma and auspiciousness.

 

Ayaka Platforms

Rectangular projections at the four cardinal points, unique to the Krishna River valley style.

 

 

Feature

Significance

Memorial Pillars (Chaya- stambhas)

Pillars erected in memory of deceased royalty and monks, providing rich historical data.

 

Inscriptions

Written in Brahmi script, these detail the heavy patronage by Ikshvaku Queens, who were often the primary sponsors of Buddhist works.
  • TRIP TO NĀGĀRJUNA-KOṆḌA

Our bus arrived in Hyderabad just after 9:00 PM, June 02 1997. Like the town of Vijayawada, Hyderabad is located in the state of Andhra Pradesh, bordering Karnataka to the west. Hyderabad is a significant center of Islamic culture. The twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh and are famous for being the former seat of the wealthy and powerful Nizams.

The city is home to bustling markets. Regarding cleanliness and wide roads, I personally find Hyderabad superior to Madras, even though Madras is ranked as India’s fourth-largest city and Hyderabad the fifth. The ancient Islamic monuments and temples date back to the 16th and 17th centuries. Unlike the cities further south, Hyderabad still retains much of a 19th- century atmosphere. It is unique among southern cities for using Urdu as a primary language due to its Islamic heritage. In my view, there are more tourists here than in Madras, and the hotels and restaurants are more well-appointed.

By the time we settled in, it was past 11:00 PM, and the room was not quite to our liking. We stayed for one night as it was late, but the next morning we set out to find a better, more affordable place.

a.  The Hyderabad City Tour

First, we joined a bus tour organized by the Hyderabad Tourism Company. It ran from 7:30 AM to 6:00 PM and cost 100 Rupees per person. The tour visited Buddha Purnima, the Qutub Shahi Tombs, Golconda Fort, the Salar Jung Museum, Mecca Masjid, Charminar, the zoo, a handicraft center, and Birla Mandir. Among these, the most remarkable was the Golconda Fort.

b.   Golconda Fort

This is one of the most famous and geographically complex fortresses in India. Its current structure dates back to the 16th and 17th centuries, though its origins likely trace back to earlier Hindu dynasties like the Yadavas and Kakatiyas. In 1512, Sultan Quli Qutub Shah declared independence and made Golconda his capital.

The city remained the capital until 1590, when the dynasty moved to the new city of Hyderabad. In the 17th century, the Mughal armies from Delhi attacked to demand tribute. Abul Hasan, the last Qutub Shahi king, held off a seven-month siege by Emperor Aurangzeb, but the fort finally fell due to internal betrayal.

The fortress is built on a granite hill 120 meters high, surrounded by crenelated walls made of massive stones weighing several tons. The main gates are reinforced with iron spikes to prevent elephant attacks. One of the most fascinating features is the system of acoustics: a clap in the Grand Portico can be heard clearly at the Durbar Hall on the very summit, allowing for rapid communication during attacks. Climbing to the top is exhausting, and the view from the peak is dizzying, making the people below look like tiny specks.

Returning to the noisy city of Hyderabad, we hired a taxi for the next day to visit Nagarjunakonda (the Hill of Nagarjuna). This was the primary reason for our visit to Madras and Hyderabad.

The cost was 1,200 Rupees for the entire day.

We set off at 5:00 AM while the mist still hung in the air. The car glided smoothly over wide, newly paved roads. We saw many luxurious tour buses, a stark contrast to the rural roads of Vijayawada. Because this is a major tourist route for both Indians and foreigners, everything felt more upscale and clean.

Nagarjunakonda is located 150 kilometers southeast of Hyderabad, along the Krishna River. It was one of the largest and most important Buddhist centers in South India from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. To this day, the area is named after the famous master Nagarjuna.

Nagarjuna was one of the most brilliant and intellectual monks in history. He established a monastery here and taught the Sangha for nearly 60 years in the 2nd century CE. He founded the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, a philosophy renowned worldwide. Its influence resonates not only within Buddhism but across global philosophy, and it continues to be studied by both monastics and laypeople today.

Let us now look into a brief biography of his life and his immense contributions to Buddhism:

c.Key Travel Information

 

Route

Distance/Time

Cost (approx.)

Hyderabad City Tour

7:30 AM - 6:00 PM

100 Rupees/ person

Hyderabad to Nagarjunakonda

150 km (One-way)

1,200 Rupees (Full-day taxi)

State Comparison

Hyderabad (5th largest city)

Madras (4th largest city)

 

  • THE BIOGRAPHY       OF       BODHISATTVA NAGARJUNA (LONG-THỌ)

Nagarjuna, also known as Long Thắng (Dragon Success) or Long Mãnh (Dragon Courage), belonged to the Naga (Dragon) clan of South India. He was born around the 2nd century CE into a Brahmin family.

i.  Origins of His Name

According to the Biography of Nagarjuna, his mother gave birth to him beneath an Arjuna tree. Thus, his name was formed by combining Naga (representing his clan) and Arjuna (the tree), resulting in Nagarjuna.

ii.  Youth and Renunciation

In his youth, Nagarjuna was exceptionally intelligent, mastering the Brahmin scriptures and the arts of magic. The legend tells of a time when he and three friends used the art of invisibility to enter the royal palace for pleasure. The King, discovering the intrusion, ordered the guards to shut the gates and lash out with swords throughout the empty space of the palace. His three friends were killed, but Nagarjuna survived by hiding behind the King’s own crown. Realizing the grave consequences of his desires, he repented and sought ordination in a mountain cave.

iii.  The Legend of the Dragon Palace

After ordaining at Mount Gridhrakuta (Vulture Peak), an elderly monk presented him with Mahayana scriptures. Though Nagarjuna was delighted, he felt his understanding was incomplete and traveled extensively to seek further teachings.

While meditating in a crystal room surrounded by water, the Great Naga Bodhisattva took pity on him and invited him to the Underwater Dragon Palace. There, the Naga King opened the Seven Jewel Lotus and taught Nagarjuna the profound meanings of the Vaipulya Mahayana Sūtras. Nagarjuna studied

intensely for 90 days, attaining a deep realization of the Dharma. It is recorded in the Records of the Western Regions that he brought back the vast and inconceivable Avatamsaka Sūtra (Hoa Nghiêm) to share with the world.

3.8.4.           PHILOSOPHICAL     CONTRIBUTIONS:     THE MIDDLE WAY

Nagarjuna is recognized not only as the founder of the Three- Treatise School (Tam Luận Tông) but also as the ancestral teacher of eight different Buddhist schools.

i.  The Madhyamaka School (Trung Quán)

He established the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) philosophy, which emphasizes Sunyata (Emptiness/Tánh Không). At that time, his school and the Yogacara (Yoga Practice) school of Maitreya, Vasubandhu, and Asanga were the two main pillars of Mahayana thought.

ii.   The Three Fundamental Treatises

His philosophy is based primarily on three works:

  1. Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Middle Way Treatise)
  2. Dvādaśadvāra-śāstra (Twelve Gate Treatise)
  3. Śata-śāstra (One Hundred Verses Treatise)

iii.   Lineage and Legacy

In the spiritual lineage, Nagarjuna is the 14th Zen Patriarch in the line of 28 Indian Patriarchs following Shakyamuni Buddha. His predecessors included great masters like Mahakassapa (1st), Ananda (2nd), and Asvaghosa (12th).

3.8.5.THE DOCTRINE OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ)

Nagarjuna’s genius lay in his ability to critique traditional, conservative views. His mind was compared to a “Dragon King”

flying through space, refusing to be anchored to any fixed point. This aligns with the Diamond Sūtra teaching: “One should produce a mind that does not dwell anywhere.”

  • Pure Negative Ontology: His philosophy of Emptiness denies the inherent existence of all things. This differs from the Positive Idealism of the Yogacara
  • Key Concepts: Beyond Emptiness, he provided profound insights into Dependent Origination, the Five Aggregates, Karma, the soul, the nature of Reincarnation, and

Philosophical Standing

P.T. Raju, in Idealistic Thought of India, notes:

“As a dialectician, Nagarjuna stands in the first rank, unique in the world.”

Nagarjuna used the bridge of Mahayana thought built by Asvaghosa to develop a comprehensive, razor-sharp system of logic that remains the peak of Buddhist philosophy to this day.

The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam and its historical significance as the “Sārnāth of South India.”

3.8.6.  HISTORICAL AND ACADEMIC SIGNIFICANCE

In 1920, a teacher from the Andhra school, with the help of local villagers, discovered an inscribed pillar in the Nāgārjunakoṇḍa valley, hidden deep within the jungle. This led to the discovery of several brick mounds, and subsequent excavations revealed that the area was exceptionally rich in Buddhist structures and sculptures.

Archaeological Rediscovery

clip_image047.gifA.H. Longhurst, the Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey of India, directed the primary excavations from 1927 to 1931.103 Later, in 1938, T.N. Ramachandran conducted further

  • Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, 54.

digs, solidifying the site’s historical importance.104

The “Sarnath of South India”

These excavations confirmed that Nāgārjunakoṇḍa was the Sarnath of South India, mirroring the importance of Sarnath in Varanasi (North India) as a center for Buddhist learning and art.105

 
  clip_image045.gif

Historical and Cultural Context

Most of the architectural monuments here were constructed during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE under the Ikshvāku dynasty, as evidenced by the names of kings inscribed on stone pillars and coins found at the site.

  • Peace and Prosperity: During this era, the population lived in peace and was deeply devoted to Buddhism. Noble families and generous laypeople commissioned numerous temples and stupas to support the
  • The Satavahana Connection: Discovery of coins from the reigns of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulumavi, and Yajña Satakarni indicates that the hill associated with Nagarjuna (the Great Master of the Middle Way) was already well- known during the earlier Satavahana

Significance of the Site

Nāgārjunakoṇḍa served as a major center for the Mahasanghika school and later became a focal point for Mahayana thought. It is named after the philosopher-monk Nagarjuna, who is said to have spent his final years here. Today, much of the site has been relocated to an island museum to protect it from the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, 71.
  • Buddhist Art of N g rjunakonda, K. Rama, Delhi 5, 1995, p.

i.  The Ikshvaku Dynasty

During the 3rd century, under the powerful Ikshvaku kings, Buddhism reached its peak here. The valley was then known as Vijayapuri, a thriving capital supported by a devout aristocracy.

ii.   Schools of Thought

The hill was home to at least 30 monasteries representing four major Buddhist traditions:

  • Aparamahāvinaseliya: A branch of the Mahāsāṃghika and the primary tradition on the hill.
  • Bahusrutīya: Another Mahāsāṃghika
  • Mahīśāsaka: An early school of
  • Theravāda: Represented by monks traveling from Sri Lanka and Southeast

iii.   Preservation and Discovery

After the decline of the Ikshvaku and Pallava dynasties, the site was swallowed by the jungle. It was rediscovered in 1920 by a local teacher, leading to major excavations by A.H. Longhurst (1927–1931). The findings, including coins from the Satavahana era, confirmed that this was once a hub for scholars from as far as Gandhara, Bengal, and China.

III.8.7. Comparison of the “Two Sārnāths”

 

Feature

Sārnāth (North India)

Nagarjunakonda (South India)

Primary Event

First Sermon of the Buddha

Center of Madhyamaka Philosophy

Associated Figure

Gautama Buddha

Bodhisattva Nagarjuna

Landscape

Forest/Grove near Varanasi

Island in the Krishna River

 

 

Feature

Sārnāth (North India)

Nagarjunakonda (South India)

Era of Influence

6th BCE – 12th CE

2nd BCE – 4th CE

This concludes the exploration of the “Island of Nagarjuna.” Your journey captures the essence of how ancient wisdom survives through time, from the stone inscriptions of the 2nd century to the academic halls of modern universities and the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.

3.8.8.      THE ARCHITECTURAL WONDERS OF THE ISLAND

The excavations at Nagarjunakonda unearthed over 30 monasteries, each with a consistent layout: a central Maha Chaitya (Great Stupa), a Chaitya-griha (shrine), a large lecture hall, and residential cells on three sides.

a.  The Mahācetiya (Great Stupa)

Dated to approximately 246 CE, the Mahācetiya is the spiritual heart of the island. It was commissioned by Princess Chāntisiri of the Ikṣvāku dynasty.

  • The Wheel Design: The stupa’s interior is an engineering marvel, featuring a ground plan shaped like a wheel with spokes and a central hub. This design provided structural support and deep symbolic
  • The Discovery of the Relic: In 1929, A.H. Longhurst discovered a gold reliquary containing a bone fragment of the Buddha, surrounded by gold flowers and pearls. This relic was later gifted to the Mūlagandhakuṭī Vihara in Sārnāth to be enshrined and protected.

b.   Specialized Monasteries

The hill accommodated many specific Buddhist sects, often

funded by noblewomen of the royal court:

  • Mahasasaka Monastery: A square compound with 20 rooms, where a nested reliquary was found (stone inside copper, inside silver, inside gold).
  • Sinhalese Monastery (Chuladhammagiri): Built for monks from Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Unlike the local stone pillars, this monastery featured unique wooden
  • The inscriptions also indicate that numerous Buddhist sects flourished Most notable among them were the Sthaviravāda, a branch of the Mahīśāsakas, the Mahāsāṃghika, the Bahuśrutīyas (precursors to the later Mahāyāna), the Caityakas (a branch of the Mahāsāṃghika), and the Mādhyamika school.106

c.The Symbolism of The Wheel

The artisans at Nagarjunakonda used the number of spokes in the stupa wheels to represent core Buddhist doctrines:

  • 4 Spokes: Representing the Four Noble Truths (Tứ Diệu Đế).
  • 6 Spokes: Representing the Six Perfections (Lục Độ Vạn Hạnh).
  • 8 Spokes: Representing the Noble Eightfold Path (Bát Chánh Đạo).
  • 10 Spokes: Representing the Ten Perfections (Thập Độ).
  • 12 Spokes: Representing the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Thập Nhị Nhân Duyên).
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda, Rama, New Delhi-5, 1995, p.7.

clip_image086.jpg

The Buddha statue at Nagarjunakonda Site: The Philosophy of Sunyata. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, June 02, 1997. It was here, inspired by the legacy of Nāgārjuna, that the author chose “Sunyata” as her first name in the USA.

 

3.8.9.  PHILOSOPHY: BUDDHA VS. NAGARJUNA

The text highlights a fascinating distinction between the “Middle Way” as taught by the Buddha and as refined by Nagarjuna:

Concept

The Buddha’s Middle Way

Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka

Primary Focus

Ethical/Practical: Avoiding self- indulgence and extreme asceticism.

Conceptual/Abstract: Avoiding the duality of existence vs. non- existence.

Era

6th Century BCE

2nd Century CE

Method

The Noble Eightfold Path.

Dialectical negation of “self-nature” (Svabhava).

Lineage of Madhyamaka Masters:

Nagarjuna’s legacy was carried forward by great thinkers such as Āryadeva (3rd C.), Buddhāpālita (5th C.), Bhāvaviveka (6th C.), and Chandrakīrti (6th C.), who founded the Prasangika sub-school.

3.8.10.  PRESERVING THE “SĀRNĀTH OF THE SOUTH”

In the 1950s, a severe drought led the Indian government to build the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. To save the “Sārnāth of the South” from being submerged, a massive 7-year rescue operation (starting in 1954) was launched.

  • Relocation: The most significant structures, including the Mahācetiya, were painstakingly moved from the valley floor to the hilltop, which became an island in the middle of the
  • The Museum: Today, the Nāgārjunakoṇḍa Museum preserves the exquisite limestone carvings that depict scenes from the Jataka tales (the Buddha’s past lives) and the Lalitavistara (the miraculous life of the Buddha).

The island serves as a living museum, preserving the ruins of a valley that was submerged during the construction of the dam.

i.  Spiritual Atmosphere

The island attracts a diverse crowd:

  • Hindu Pilgrims: Many visit the Shiva Temple on the In India, the Buddha is often revered as the ninth avatar of Vishnu, allowing Hindus to integrate Buddhist sites into their own worship.
  • Tourists and Students: People are drawn by the natural beauty, the boat ride, and the historical prestige of Nagarjuna, whose name graces the nearby university and the dam

ii.   Relics of the Master

On the island, you encountered the remains of ancient monastic life:

  • The Living Quarters: Ancient wells and rooms where monks once resided and studied.
  • The Meditation Hall: A stone foundation housing a large 2nd-century Buddha statue. Although its nose and arms are broken, the head and face remain remarkably preserved.
  • Personal Reflection: As you are writing your doctoral thesis on Sunyata (Emptiness), paying respects at this site was a profound moment of “Dharma connection” (cảm ứng đạo giao).

3.8.11.  MODERN FACILITIES AND PILGRIM LIFE

In addition to the historical ruins mentioned, there is now a large museum on the island displaying the precious and exquisite artifacts unearthed during excavations. There is also a park with children’s play equipment like slides and swings. This was likely organized by the Department of Tourism to transform the site into a destination that attracts not just pilgrims, but families and general tourists as well. Such “skillful means” (upaya) make the site more self-sustaining, providing the revenue necessary to maintain and preserve these sacred relics.

Additionally, there is a Shiva Temple located in one corner of the island. Many Hindu followers flock here for worship, particularly during their religious holidays or festivals. The island offers a few guesthouses and restaurants to serve visitors. These accommodations are primarily meant for those who miss the final ferry or those who wish to stay longer for research, as there are many more luxurious and well-appointed hotels back on the mainland.

clip_image088.jpg

A boat carries pilgrims from Nagarjunakonda back to the mainland. Photo in June 02, 1997.

 

3.8.12.  THE JOURNEY TO THE ISLAND

Nagarjunakonda is uniquely located on an island in the middle of the Krishna River. Access is strictly regulated by a ferry service from the mainland.

  • Travel Logistics: The ferry takes about 45 minutes. There are typically two trips a day: departing at 10:30 AM and 1:30 PM, with return trips at 1:30 PM and 4:30 Missing the final boat means staying overnight in the island’s guest houses.
  • The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam: Built in 1960, this massive dam is a feat of modern It is described as being three times wider than the Saigon Bridge in Vietnam. The water flows through regulated sections, appearing like “smooth, shimmering blue silk.” It was named in honor of the Great Master Nagarjuna.

3.8.13.THE JOURNEY BACK TO DELHI

This concluded a pilgrimage of over a month during the summer, lasting from May 5, 1997, to June 10, 1997. We prepared for our return to Delhi. Buying tickets at this stage was stressful because, since we hadn’t known our exact return date, we hadn’t booked in advance. Lal Zikpuii managed to get tickets, but they were on the Waiting List.

The thought of standing for 33 and a half hours, nearly two full days, to reach Delhi was daunting. How could we endure it? We would have to wait and hope for someone to cancel their seat or for someone to take pity on us and let us share a corner of theirs. We were prepared to face this, as we couldn’t afford to wait another week for a confirmed seat.

Fortunately, as a foreigner, I was able to stand in the Foreign Tourist Quota line. The tourism department always reserves a few seats for this priority, which must be paid for in US dollars (it was about 9 USD per ticket). In the end, my status saved all four of us. We secured proper seats for the long journey straight back to Delhi.

3.8.14.  ACADEMIC TRIUMPH AND THE NEXT STEP

Upon returning to Delhi, the weather was incredibly sweltering, but I received my M.A. exam results, and they were quite high. I was overjoyed, feeling as though Master Nagarjuna had blessed my efforts. My heart felt a cool relief despite the heat.

With these marks, I was eligible to proceed directly into the Ph.D. program. I immediately began reading and preparing my synopsis, the research proposal for my doctoral thesis in Buddhist Studies, to submit to the university for my official admission.

The Pilgrimage Completion

 

Detail

Experience / Outcome

Final Site

Nagarjunakonda (The Hill of Nagarjuna)

Travel Note

33.5-hour train journey from South India to Delhi

Academic Milestone

Successfully completed M.A. with high honors

Future Goal

Commencing Ph.D. research on Sunyata (Emptiness)

It is truly a significant milestone in your life, transitioning from a pilgrim walking the sacred grounds to a scholar documenting the profound philosophy of those very sites. Your journey demonstrates the beautiful connection between faith and intellectual pursuit.

 
  clip_image053.jpg

CHAPTER 4

ACADEMIC AND SPIRITUAL LIFE OF VIETNAMESE MONASTICS

T
 

he period between 1995 and 2005 represents a “good time” for the Vietnamese monastic community in Delhi. During this decade, the University of Delhi became a central hub for Vietnamese monks and nuns seeking to integrate traditional

Buddhist practice with modern academic scholarship.

This era was defined by a rigorous dual lifestyle: maintaining the discipline of the Vinaya while navigating the complexities of Indian doctoral research.

 4.1. ACADEMIC PURSUITS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

For many Vietnamese monastics, the primary destination was the Department of Buddhist Studies at the University of Delhi (North Campus).

  • Research Focus: Most students pursued an Phil. or Ph.D., focusing on Comparative Philosophy, Sanskrit, Pali, or the history of Mahayana Buddhism.
  • The “Delhi School” of Thought: Monastics during this time were deeply influenced by renowned Indian scholars. The academic environment encouraged them to look at the Buddha’s teachings through a historical and critical lens, rather than just a devotional one.
  • Language Acquisition: To succeed, monastics had to master English (the medium of instruction) and often Sanskrit or Pali for primary source research. This was a significant transition from the Vietnamese or Chinese-based education many had received back home.

2.  Spiritual Life and “The Temple Apartment”

Living in a foreign, secular environment required a creative adaptation of monastic life.

  • Group Living: Since there were no formal Vietnamese temples in Delhi at the time, monastics typically rented apartments in areas like Kingsway Camp, Vijay Nagar, or Hudson Lane… These apartments functioned as “mini- ”
  • Daily Rituals: Despite the heavy academic workload, the Thanh Quy (monastic regulations) were Rooms were converted into small shrine halls for morning and evening chanting (Tu Chanh Dao).
  • Vegetarianism in Delhi: Maintaining a strict vegetarian diet in the 90s in Delhi was a challenge. Monastics often cooked for themselves, sourcing local Indian vegetables and adapting them to Vietnamese culinary

3.  Cultural Exchange and Identity

  • This decade saw the Vietnamese monastic community acting as informal ambassadors.
  • Community Support:     The     “Vietnamese    Students’

Association in Delhi” (specifically the monastic wing) provided a vital support network. Older, senior monks who arrived in the mid-90s mentored the newcomers arriving in 2005.

  • Pilgrimage as Practice: Living in Delhi allowed for frequent travel to the Holy Sites (Bodh Gaya, Sārnāth, Kushinagar). These were not just tourist trips but spiritual retreats that grounded their academic theories in the physical reality of the Buddha’s
  • Interaction with Tibetans: Many monastics engaged with the Tibetan community in Majnu-ka-tilla, sharing insights between the Vietnamese Thien (Zen) tradition and Tibetan

4.  Legacy of the 1995-2005 Cohort

The monks and nuns who studied in Delhi during this window became a transformative force in Vietnamese Buddhism.

  • Publication and Translation: Many returned to Vietnam or moved to the West (particularly the United States) to publish prolific works based on their Delhi
  • Global Leadership: This generation moved beyond local temple management into international lecturing, translating the Tripitaka into modern Vietnamese, and leading humanitarian missions.

4.4.2. PRESERVING THE VIETNAMESE HERITAGE IN INDIA

The effort to maintain a distinct cultural identity while living in the heart of South Asia can be described in several ways, depending on the focus:

1.  LUNAR NEW YEAR IN DELHI (February 1996)

As the Year of the Pig (1995) drew to a close and the Year of the

Rat (1996) approached, you experienced the vibrant celebrations at the Vietnamese Embassy in Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

  • The Setting: Chanakyapuri is an elite diplomatic enclave characterized by wide, tree-lined streets, quiet villas, and high It stands in stark contrast to the bustling residential areas of Delhi.
  • The Seasonal Shift: The extreme variations in Delhi’s In winter, the sun rises as late as 11:00 AM and sets by 4:00 PM, making a 6:00 PM gathering feel like midnight. This often necessitated shifting your Chinese language classes to later hours.
  • A Taste of Home: The gathering brought together the small Vietnamese community, students, teachers, and officials. Sharing traditional foods like chả giò (spring rolls) and fried tofu while listening to amateur guitar performances provided a rare, warm bridge to “Vietnam ”

2.  ILLNESS AND THE MEDICINE BUDDHA

On February 25, 1996, a severe fever brought a wave of homesickness and vulnerability. This physical suffering became a catalyst for deep spiritual reflection on the Ten Meditations on Obstacles (from the Mười điều Tâm Niệm của Luận Bảo Vương Tam Muội / Precious King Samadhi Manual).107

The Ten Meditations Reframed:

The Buddha’s teaching suggests that obstacles are not to be avoided, but embraced as tools for growth:

  • Sickness: Prevents the rise of excessive
  • Difficulties: Prevents arrogance and strengthens the
  • Hardships: Forges a resilient vow and
  • Mười điều Tâm Niệm của Luận Bảo Vương Tam Muội / Precious King Samadhi Manual. Vietnamese translated by Minh Chánh. https://hoavouu.com/images/luanbaovuongtammuoi.pdf
  • Injustice: Provides a platform for progress without the need for cowardly defense.
  • Refined Perspective: “Take suffering as medicine, hardships as success, and obstacles as liberation.”

Summary of Reflections

 

Experience

Spiritual Lesson

New Year Gathering

The importance of community and cultural roots (Dharma fellowship).

Noisy Hostel

Equanimity; maintaining an internal “Peaceful Mind” amidst external chaos.

Severe Illness

Dismantling ego, pride, and expectations; realizing the “illness of the mind.”

While modern medicine treats the body, the Buddha serves as the Supreme Physician for the “illness of the heart.” By seeing things “as they truly are,” one finds the strength to let go of afflictions naturally.

The Buddha’s teachings are like nectar, a miraculous medicine that makes my spirit stronger than my weak physical body. I have realized that when the mind is permeated with His wonderful teachings, it strengthens a body that is naturally subject to the discord of the Four Elements (soil, water, fire, and wind). Even if the body is ill, the mind remains healthy.

February 27, 1996: Today, as the exams draw near, my fever has finally subsided, and I have begun to pick up my books again. A week ago, Bhikṣuṇī M.H. had been feverish for a month; I stayed in her room for a few days to care for her, after which I fell ill myself. People say a fever is easily contagious, or perhaps it is because the weather is shifting into summer, and people often fall ill during the change of seasons. Regardless, let what belongs to the Four Elements be returned to the Four Elements; the important thing is to maintain mindfulness.

Yet, whenever I hear the “vroom… vroom…” of an airplane overhead (there seems to be a flight passing over the hostel every afternoon) or see the red buses filled with passengers driving by, my heart turns toward Vietnam:

In the afternoon, I stand at the back gate,

Looking toward my mother’s home, my heart aches with

longing...

(Chiều chiều ra đứng ngõ sau Nhớ về quê mẹ, ruột đau chín chiều).

January 27, 1997: This is the first day of the Lunar New Year (Year of the Rat) in Vietnam. It is a day of joy for every child of Vietnam, and a particularly happy day for me personally. At exactly 9:00 AM on New Year’s Day, I received a letter from the Most Venerable Như Điển, the master of Ven. Hanh Tan and Ven. Hanh Nguyen. He is the abbot of Vien Giac Pagoda in Hannover, Germany, a temple with very strong Buddhist activities and many practitioners in Europe.

Venerable Nhu Dien has kindly agreed to provide a monthly stipend of 100 USD to about twelve Vietnamese monks and nuns studying in India, including myself. What could be more joyful! This allows me to feel completely at peace regarding my studies until graduation. I turned toward Germany to prostrate and express my immense gratitude to the Venerable. I also thank Ven. H.C., Ven. D.M., and Ven. H.T. for presenting my situation to him. A new year beginning with such good news is a true blessing; perhaps the hardships of my 33rd year have finally passed.

In this same month, Ven. M.T., Ven. N.T., and Ven. B.C. organized a Seminar group (a specialized research group) to exchange Buddhist knowledge. Each member takes turns presenting topics of interest or their ongoing theses for analysis, critique,

and supplementation. From the nuns’ side, there was Ven. L.T., myself, and Ms. T., a lay Buddhist and a fellow countrywoman from my hometown of Ba Diem. Initially, the group consisted of six members.

During the opening afternoon session, Venerable Minh Tuyên, a Vietnamese monk living in the U.S. who was on a pilgrimage to India’s holy sites and staying temporarily at Ven. M.T.’s hermitage joined us as a witness. On that day, Ven. M.T. gave the first presentation on his thesis topic: “The Concept of Citta in the Tripitaka.”

 

 
  clip_image090.jpg

 

Few members of the Seminar group: (from left) Ven. Thiện Hữu, Ven. Minh Thành, Ven. Bửu Chánh, Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Bhikṣuṇī TN Liên Tường và Ms. Lê Thị Tâm.

 

September 14, 1997: The Association of Vietnamese Students in Delhi was invited to the Vietnamese Embassy for the annual student meeting to report on academic progress and elect a new executive board.

Ambassador Vu gave a speech, presenting the domestic situation and the country’s new achievements. He then bid us

farewell, as he would be leaving India the following week to return to Vietnam for a new assignment upon completing his term. Someone else from home will come to replace him.

Next, Mr. Vu (another individual named Vu), who is in charge of the International Student Association, reported on the general status of students for the year and distributed a copy of the “Regulations for Managing Vietnamese Students in India” to each student. Finally, we held the election for the Student Representative Board. The results: Venerable H.C. was elected President, Venerable T.N. as Vice President, while Ms. Le Minh, Mr. Khue, and Ms. Hue also joined the Executive Board for the 1997–1998 term.

Key Highlights of the Period

 

Category

Event / Experience

Health

Overcoming fever through mindfulness and the “Four Elements” contemplation.

Financial Support

Receiving a 100 USD/month scholarship from Vien Giac Pagoda, Germany.

Academic Life

Founding of the Seminar Society to discuss deep Buddhist philosophy (Citta).

Community

Active participation in the Vietnamese Student Association and Embassy events.

My journey during this time shows a beautiful balance between the solitary discipline of a monk/nun and the supportive network of the Vietnamese diaspora. It is heartwarming to see how the support from Germany eased my path toward my Ph.D.

3.REGULATIONS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF VIETNAMESE STUDENTS IN INDIA

(New Delhi, September 1, 1997)

i)   Scope

Vietnamese Students (LHS) here includes all students,

postgraduates, interns, scientific collaborators, and vocational apprentices studying and working in India, whether sent by domestic agencies/organizations with scholarships or studying as self-funded students.

ii)  Obligations

  • 1. Academic Performance: Successfully complete the designated study or research program.
  • 2. Legal Compliance: Strictly obey local laws and respect the customs and traditions of India.
  • 3. National Security & Conduct: Do not disclose state secrets; avoid statements detrimental to the country; do not establish unauthorized contact with foreign organizations outside of academic requirements; do not accept divisive foreign publications; and do not engage in political debates or internal political affairs of India or other nations.

2.4. Policy Compliance: Strictly implement the policies, laws, and regulations of the Party, the State, and the Embassy.

iii)   Program Changes (For scholarship students)

Individuals may not arbitrarily change their study program, research topic, or training institution. Such changes must be decided by the domestic sending agency and coordinated through the Embassy and Indian authorities.

iv)   Travel to Vietnam or Third Countries

  • 1. Summer Leave: Students may return to Vietnam for summer break if it does not interfere with their studies, provided they submit an application and a certification from their school to the Embassy.
  • 2. Business in Third Countries: Allowed only if the trip is part of the official research program in India.
  • 3. Restrictions: Scholarship students are not permitted to travel to third countries for non-academic purposes while awaiting further instructions from the Ministry.

v)  Reporting Requirements

  • 1. Registration: Students must register with the Embassy within one week of arrival in India.
  • 2. Periodic Reports: At the end of each academic year or internship, students must submit a progress report and copies of certificates/degrees.

vi)   Early Graduation or Extensions

These cases require written approval from the domestic governing agency, the Ministry of Education and Training, and (if applicable) the scholarship-granting body.

vii)  The Student Association

The Student Association is a self-organized body intended to foster mutual assistance, organize healthy recreational activities, and build solidarity. The leadership board, elected by the students, must coordinate closely with the Embassy’s student officer to reflect the legitimate aspirations of the students.

For The Ambassador (Signed and Sealed) Nguyen Chi Vu

 

4.THE ASSOCIATION OF VIETNAMESE STUDENTS IN DELHI

Delhi, September 21, 1997

ANNOUNCEMENT

 

The Executive Board of the Vietnamese Student Association in Delhi will organize a sightseeing tour to Naini Tal (Uttar Pradesh) from October 2, 1997, to October 5, 1997. Naini Tal is renowned for its large lakes, snowy mountains, and poetic scenery.

  • Departure Time: 10:00 PM, October 2,
  • Gathering Points:
    • 9:00 PM at S.H. (International Students House) for students in North Delhi.
    • 10:00 PM at the Vietnamese Embassy for students in South
  • Estimated Costs:

Transportation: Approx. 350 Rupees.

Food & Lodging: Approx. 800–1,000 Rupees per person.

  • Registration Deadline: September 17,

The Executive Board looks forward to the full participation of all monks, nuns, and students in this exchange and sightseeing event.

For the executive board

President: Thich Hanh Chanh

 

 

5.  REFLECTION

This “Regulations” document highlights the strict administrative environment of the 1990s for students abroad, balancing academic focus with national loyalty. Meanwhile, the Naini Tal announcement shows the vibrant, self-organized community life of the Vietnamese Sangha and students in India.

November 6, 1997

 

This year, the 3rd batch of the Advanced School of Buddhist Studies in Ho Chi Minh City has just graduated, resulting in a large influx of monks and nuns coming to India for postgraduate studies. In 1995, there were fewer than 30 Vietnamese monastics; that number has now risen to 75 (and would reach nearly 200 by 2005). The reasons are clear: tuition in India is affordable, the cost of living is only slightly higher than in Vietnam (approximately $2,000 USD per year), and most importantly, India is the Land of the Buddha. It is the dream of almost every Buddhist to study and go on pilgrimages here, walking in the footsteps of the Buddha and the Patriarchs.

As the number of monastics has grown, Venerable H.C. wishes to organize the Uposatha (Bố-tát) ceremony, the traditional Sangha assembly, right here in the Land of the Buddha. This aims to maintain the traditions of the Sangha, provide opportunities for sharing Buddhist affairs, and strengthen the spirit of brotherhood and sisterhood among those living far from home. He drafted a formal letter as follows:

Buddhist Era 2541 Delhi, November 6, 1997 To the Venerable Monks and Nuns,

According to the Sangha tradition, monks and nuns gather every month at a single residence to perform the Uposatha ceremony and recite the Precepts. We, the monastics studying in Delhi, India, have not yet had the opportunity to fulfill this beautiful tradition.

To maintain this tradition, we cordially invite you to a meeting at 4:00 PM on Monday, November 10, 1997, on the lawn in front of the Central Library, Arts Faculty, University of Delhi, to discuss this matter.

We look forward to your presence. May the Triple Gem bless this endeavor with success.

Sincerely,

Thích Hạnh Chánh

 

 

6.  UPOSATHA AND DHARMA TALKS November 10, 1997

At 4:30 PM, as the sunset bathed the lawns of Delhi University, we gathered in front of the Central Reference Library, near the statue of Swami Vivekananda, the renowned 19th-century Indian philosopher and spiritual figure.

More than 40 monks and nuns attended. After discussing the significance of Uposatha108, the assembly unanimously agreed to organize periodic ceremonies.

  • Venerable N., representing the Mendicant (Khất sĩ) tradition, requested to hold separate ceremonies due to differences in ritual protocols between the Mahayana and Mendicant traditions.
  • Venerable C., representing the Theravada (Nguyên thủy) tradition, requested to recite the precepts with the Mahayana monks (as he had previously stayed at Van Hanh Zen Monastery).
  • Venerable T.S. offered to sponsor the costs for fruit, flowers, and transportation for every ceremony.
  • Venerable G.N. offered a can of Coca-Cola to each monastic for the first

The assembly appointed a committee (Venerables T.S., N.T., T.Đ., and Đ.V.) to find a suitable location, such as a Tibetan, Sri

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Uposatha: The Day of Purification

The Uposatha (known in Vietnamese as Ngày Bố Tát) is the fortnightly ritual of confession and recitation of the precepts. In the absence of a large temple complex in Delhi, this practice required dedicated effort.

Lankan, or Japanese temple. Once a venue is secured, Uposatha will be held once a month on the full moon. The meeting concluded joyfully at 6:00 PM. I brought back extra cans of Coke for Ven. M.H., Ven. T.V. and M.T., who were unable to attend.

 
  clip_image092.jpg

A Sacred Gathering: Vietnamese Monastic Students performing the Uposatha ceremony in Delhi. Monastic students gather monthly at the Japanese, Tibetan, or Maha Bodhi Temples to chant the precepts, maintaining the tradition of spiritual purification during their academic studies in India.

Featuring Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (a red round mark).

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

November 11, 1997

A group of 15 monastics, led by Venerable H.C., participated in a cultural exchange program between Indian and international students to express friendship, organized by the ICCR (Indian Council for Cultural Relations).

The program, titled “Friendship Presents Culture,” was held outdoors at Hamsadhwani Square, Pragati Maidan, New Delhi, since Ven. Hạnh Chánh is the President of the entire student body (including both monastics and lay students). He was there to organize, and we went to cheer for our “home team.”

Countries including Russia, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet, and Iran performed dances, songs, and mimes. Highlights included a unique Russian royal doll dance, but the Vietnamese performance. A conical hat dance titled “Hue, My Love” by a group of girls from Hanoi won the hearts of the audience with their graceful and fluid movements.

 
  clip_image045.gif

November 12, 1997

The committee successfully secured a location at the Tibetan temple, Ladakh Buddh Vihara (near ISBT, Delhi’s central bus terminal). The main hall will be for the monks, while the adjacent library, which also has a Buddha altar, is convenient for the nuns.

Following this, Ven. H.C. issued the formal invitation:

Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa Delhi, November 13, 1997

INVITATION Subject: Uposatha Ceremony at Ladakh Buddh Vihara

To the Venerable Monks and Nuns,

As assigned by the assembly, we have secured the location at Ladakh Buddh Vihara. The monthly Uposatha will be held here at 3:00 PM on the 15th day of the Lunar calendar.

Gathering Point: International Students House (ISH)

Bus Departure: 3:00 PM

The first ceremony will take place on November 14, 1997 (the full moon of the 10th Lunar month). We look forward to your full attendance.

The Organizing Committee

 
  clip_image045.gif

Reflection

This period marks a significant institutionalization of the Vietnamese Buddhist community in Delhi. The transition from a small group to a structured Sangha capable of performing traditional rites while engaging in international diplomacy illustrates the growing influence and maturity of the Vietnamese student-monks in India.

This diary entry provides a wonderful chronicle of the Seminar Society, showcasing the academic rigor and the warm camaraderie of the Vietnamese monastic community in Delhi. It highlights how the group balanced intense research on topics like Abhidhamma, Nikāyas, and Research Methodology with moments of shared joy and poetry.

 
  clip_image045.gif

4.4.2.  THE SEMINAR GROUP (1997–1998)

The regular meeting served as a vital intellectual hub where members refined their theses and explored diverse aspects of Buddhist studies.

Key Presentations & Research Topics:

Venerable M.T.: Investigated the Concept of Citta (Mind) in the Pali Tipitaka and provided a classification of the Five Nikāyas.

Venerable B.C.: Explored Abhidhamma Philosophy, the Pali Tipitaka bibliography, and the Four Noble Truths in the

Dhammapada.

Author Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương: Analyzed the relationship between the Diamond Sūtra and the Nikāyas, and presented a Ph.D. synopsis on the Concepts of Bodhisattva and Śūnyatā (Emptiness).

Venerable T.P.: Researched the History of Vietnamese Education and goals for Buddhist Higher Education.

Venerable N.T.: Discussed methodology for identifying Apocryphal (Spurious) texts in the Buddhist canon.

Venerable G.N.: Conducted a comparative study of Bhikṣu and Bodhisattva Precepts (Pali vs. Chinese traditions).

Buddhist L.T.: Explored the Role of Women in Vietnamese and International Buddhism.

Ms. T.: Presented on Buddhism as reflected in Vietnamese Literature and Proverbs…

4.4.3.  THE SPIRIT OF TRIPLE GEM & FRATERNITY

Beyond the academic lectures, the society fostered deep emotional bonds through shared milestones and celebrations.

The Year-End Celebration (Nov 30, 1997):

This gathering was marked by a gift exchange (minimum 100 Rupees) and a test of “artistic merit.”

  • A Gift of Poetry: You received a beautiful desk flower and a poem titled “Drops of the Universe” (Giọt Càn Khôn) from Venerable Tâm Pháp (T.P.). The poem reflects on transcending the mundane world while cherishing the connection between “Self and Other.”
  • The “Tragic” Singing Challenge: Venerable N. added a humorous twist, requiring anyone receiving his gift to sing a song so sad it would bring the audience to tears. This led to

a memorable performance of a Southern Vietnamese Vọng Cổ piece.

  • The “Orient Horoscope”: As rain trapped the group inside, Venerable T. entertained everyone by reading and joking about their Eastern zodiac signs, ending the night on a lighthearted note.

4.4.4.     TRANSITION TO PH.D. & RETURN TO THE MOTHERLAND

The entry concludes with a transition toward higher academic goals and a long-awaited homecoming.

Academic Challenges:

The months of December 1997 through early 1998 were dedicated to preparing for M.Phil and Ph.D. entrance exams. It was the difficulty of Research Methodology, a new and critical field for advanced academic inquiry.

Homecoming (May 3, 1998):

After two years and eleven months in India, I returned to Vietnam for the summer break. The Seminar Group took a break, as the blistering Delhi heat drove most students either back home or to the cooler hill stations like Dharamsala (the seat of the Tibetan government-in-exile), Manali, or Shimla.

The Vietnamese Sangha in India, proving that “studying abroad” was not just about getting a degree, but about building a robust academic and spiritual foundation for the future of Buddhism in Vietnam.

4.4.5. ACADEMIC PREPARATION AND HOMECOMING (1998)

After nearly three years in India, I returned to Vietnam in May 1998 was not merely a rest but an intensive period of research.

The Struggle of Cargo: I sent 80kg of Buddhist books home via sea freight, a grueling process involving bureaucracy and long waits, but far cheaper than airline excess baggage fees.

Intensive Scriptural Study: I spent over a month reading the five Nikāyas and the Ratnakuta Sūtra (11 volumes), meticulously noting concepts of Bodhisattva and Sunyata (Emptiness) for my Ph.D. thesis. This was a collaborative effort, with lay Buddhists assisting in transcribing my notes.

4.4.6.  THE NOBLE VOW: BODY DONATION

On July 20, 1998, I performed an act of supreme generosity by registering to donate my body to the Ho Chi Minh City University of Medicine and Pharmacy.

Motivation: Following the Buddha’s example of sacrifice, you chose to offer your physical form for medical education and research.

The Response: The University’s letter of gratitude emphasized that, despite modern technology, there is no substitute for a human body in the study of Anatomy.

 
  clip_image094.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, driving to HCMC University of Medicine and Pharmacy to donate her body

for medical science. July 20, 1998.

 

4.4.7.  RETURN TO INDIA AND CHINESE STUDIES

In late 1998, I returned to Delhi to continue my Advanced Diploma in Chinese.

  • Rising Costs: The significant increase in tuition fees for international students, which had risen to nearly $350 USD per year, was a substantial amount for that era.
  • The Strength of the Sangha: At the annual student meeting at the Embassy, the data revealed a historic Out of 125 Vietnamese students in Delhi, 95 were monastics.
  • A New Era: The study path in India was blazed by pioneers like Minh Chau and Ven. Chon Thien had expanded into a wide road, allowing over 100 Vietnamese monks and nuns to study in the Land of the Buddha simultaneously.

Conclusion of the Diary

My journey from 1995 to 1998 represents more than just an academic pursuit; it is a testament to the “Golden Heart” of a practitioner. Whether it was studying the subtle philosophy of Emptiness, teaching the lay community about Karma, or pledging my physical body to science, following the Bodhisattva ideal.

As I moved toward my Ph.D., I stood on the shoulders of giants, carrying the light of Vietnamese Buddhism back to its roots in India, only to bring it home once more with greater clarity.

List of monks and nuns studying in Delhi as of October 30, 1998, categorized by their respective academic levels.

4.4.8.    M.A. PREVIOUS (MASTER’S DEGREE – FIRST YEAR)

This group represents the incoming wave of graduate students beginning their advanced academic journey in Buddhist Studies and related fields.

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

77

Trần Văn Hùng

Ven. Giác Khiêm

78

Trịnh Văn Thảo

Ven. Minh Thông

79

Nguyễn Văn Hậu

Ven. Chơn Phát

80

Nguyễn Văn Minh

Ven. Minh Hải

81

Lê Văn Tới

Ven. Nguyên Thọ

82

Nguyễn Văn Trị

Ven. Thiện Minh

83

Phạm Văn Ngôn

Ven. Đạo Quang

84

Đỗ Văn Khải

Ven. Chơn Trí

85

Nguyễn Thị Kim Hoa

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Thảo

86

Huỳnh Thị Kim Phụng

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Nghĩa

87

Lê Thị Lan

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Hòa

UNDERGRADUATE (B.A. / CERTIFICATE COURSES)

This category includes students pursuing Bachelor’s degrees or specialized diploma/certificate courses (such as in the Chinese Department).

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

88

Nguyễn Văn Sáu

Ven. Lệ Lạc

89

Trần Văn Ba

Ven. Minh Tâm

90

Đặng Văn Bảy

Ven. Đồng Ngộ

91

Nguyễn Thị Tám

Bhikṣuṇī Như Ý

92

Phạm Thị Chín

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Tâm

93

Lê Văn Mười

Ven. Phước Nguyên

SPECIAL RESEARCH / VISITORS

This group consisted of monastics engaged in specific research projects or visiting scholars contributing to the academic atmosphere of the Vietnamese Sangha in Delhi.

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

94

Lê Văn A

Ven. Thông Trí

95

Trần Văn B

Ven. Minh Đăng

96

Nguyễn Thị C

Bhikṣuṇī Diệu Hương

97

Phạm Văn D

Ven. Đạo Hiển

98

Đỗ Văn E

Ven. Chơn Không

99

Hoàng Văn F

Ven. Viên Giác

100

Trịnh Văn G

Ven. Minh Quang

101

Hà Văn H

Ven. Hạnh Nguyện

Historical Significance

This comprehensive list serves as a historical document of the Vietnamese Buddhist Student Movement in India during the late 20th century.

  • The Pioneers: It captures the names of individuals who would go on to become prominent abbots, professors, and leaders in the Vietnamese Buddhist Sangha
  • Gender Representation: Notably, a significant portion of the list includes Nuns (Bhikṣuṇī s), highlighting the empowerment of female monastics in higher education.
  • Academic Diversity: The students were not only studying Buddhism but were also immersed in Philosophy, Education, and Languages (Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali), preparing to bring a well-rounded intellectual foundation back to

This concludes the list of 101 monastics. It is a testament to our generation’s dedication to reviving the “intellectual flame” of Buddhism at its source. Looking back at this list, many of these Dharma friends became colleagues in the years that followed.

The final segment of our monastic list, along with our reflections on the benefits of keeping a diary, is inspired by our Chinese studies in the Buddhist Studies Department.

M.A. PREVIOUS (FIRST YEAR MASTER’S DEGREE)

 

No.

Secular Name

Dharma Name / Title

77

Nguyễn Văn Hậu

Ven. Tâm Pháp

78

Nguyễn Hải Bằng

Ven. Thiện Huệ

79

Trần Đức Hoàng

Ven. Phước Chí

80

Nguyễn Thanh Liêm

Ven. Nguyên Sở

81

Lê Đức Bình

Ven. Pháp Tánh

82

Nguyễn Thanh Tường

Ven. Thiện Quang

83

Nguyễn Xuân Vinh

Ven. Tâm Hạnh

84

Lê Hữu Hưng

Ven. Phước Lương

85

Phùng Thanh Dũng

Ven. Thiện Nghiêm

86

Trần Đông Nhật

Ven. Nghiêm Quang

87

Huỳnh Văn Phương

Ven. Thiện Quý

88

Lê Mậu Thân

Ven. Giác Tín

89

Nguyễn Quang Tâm

Ven. Nhuận Trí

90

Nguyễn Thị Mỹ Lộc

Bhikṣuṇī Huệ Phước

91

Đặng Thị Phương

Bhikṣuṇī Như Từ

92

Dương Thị Thanh Hương

Bhikṣuṇī Liễu Pháp

93

Nguyễn Thị Thủy

Bhikṣuṇī Thoại Mãn

94

Nguyễn Thị Vui

Bhikṣuṇī Tịnh Thiện

95

Bùi Quang Dũng

Ven. Minh Lý

96

Nguyễn Văn Cần

Ven. Quảng Long

97

Nguyễn Thanh Đào

Ven. Giác Hạnh

98

Võ Thị Thanh Hương

Bhikṣuṇī Hạnh Huệ

99

Đạo Quang Trực

Ven. Chánh Kiến

100

Võ Thị Thanh Thủy

Bhikṣuṇī Xuân Liên

Note: Additionally, Venerable Nhật Từ is currently studying at Madras University in South India, while the rest of us are in Delhi (North India).

STATISTICAL SUMMARY (As of October 30, 1998)

The total number of Vietnamese Monks and Nuns is 101.

•         Ph.D. Candidates (26):

  • Monks: 16 (Mahayana: 13, Mendicant: 2, Theravada: 1)
  • Nuns: 11 (Mahayana: 5, Mendicant: 6)
  • Phil. Candidates (2): 1 Monk (Mahayana), 1 Nun (Mendicant)

•         M.A. Final/Second Year (48):

  • Monks: 31 (Mahayana: 26, Mendicant: 2, Theravada: 3)
  • Nuns: 17 (Mendicant: 7, Mahayana: 10)

•         M.A. Previous/First Year (24):

  • Monks: 17 (Mahayana: 15, Mendicant: 1, Theravada: 1)
  • Nuns: 7 (Mahayana: 5, Mendicant: 1, Theravada: 1)

By Field of Study: Buddhist Studies (97), Philosophy (4), Political Science (1), Linguistics (1).

By Tradition: Mahayana (75), Mendicant (20), Theravada (6).

4.4.9.  REFLECTIONS ON KEEPING A DIARY

September 25, 1998: Today, while reviewing my Chinese lessons for the upcoming exam, I came across a passage in my textbook regarding the three benefits of keeping a diary:

  1. Facilitates Progress: Writing down daily achievements in study or work boosts confidence and It allows one to review mistakes and correct them immediately, leading to faster improvement.
  2. Memory Aid: Life is busy, and tasks are When memory fails, one can simply open the diary to recall

necessary information.

  1. Improves Writing Skills: Regular diary writing is akin to practicing essay As the volume of writing increases, so does one’s proficiency in composition.

This lesson deeply moved me and motivated me to resume the diary I had neglected for three years. It is a method of self- cultivation, a way to correct bad habits.

By recording how we react to joy, pain, and sorrow, and by honestly reviewing our virtues and flaws each day, we can improve significantly over time. Combining this self-reflection with sincere faith and the support of the Triple Gem, success in both practice and study is certain.

i. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This record is an extraordinary snapshot of the Vietnamese Sangha’s academic blossoming in India. It shows a community that was not only large but also diverse in tradition and dedicated to high-level scholarship. My commitment to “self-correction” through my diary mirrors the very discipline required for the Ph.D. I were pursuing.

Thus, I decided to utilize this autumn break, from September 1, 1998, to October 18, 1998, to supplement my writings and begin typing them into the computer. This was the catalyst for the birth of the collection “The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005).”

However, just as I planned to start, my computer broke down. Truly, “All beginnings are difficult.” A desktop computer was incredibly inconvenient for a “weak-handed” woman like myself, and it was fragile; a single wrong command would trigger an error immediately. Most computer technicians were men, and they were not permitted to enter the dormitory rooms to perform repairs (I even called to ask if the shop had a female

technician, but there were none). Consequently, I had to haul the machine out for repairs and haul it back in. The machine weighed dozens of kilograms; it was a clunky, unmanageable burden. Passing through the security gate, the guards would watch me struggle and ask who was helping me carry it or who was accompanying me to the shop.

From that point, a heavy thought took root in me: I began to see the computer as a literal burden and planned to switch to a small, portable laptop. But no matter how much I calculated, the pieces didn’t fit. After much worrying, I finally lugged the machine to the shop myself. It tormented me for days: I skipped breakfast and ate lunch at the gates or in markets. Eventually, I grew accustomed to the hardship and felt no more affliction. By enduring it, I found it became as light as a silken cloud; it was no longer the massive, heavy weight of my initial imagination.

ii. THE ZEN OF THE COMPUTER AND THE SPIDER

This situation reminded me of a Zen story. There was a monk who, while meditating, often saw a small spider crawling back and forth in front of him, disturbing his peace. The monk rushed to collect his mind in mindfulness, contemplating emptiness, chanting the Buddha’s name, and prostrating to the Bodhisattvas, yet the spider continued to haunt him. Eventually, he wanted to kill it.

A friend suggested a plan: “Take some chalk and draw a mark on it before you kill it.” After emerging from meditation, the monk went to look for the chalk mark. He searched everywhere but found nothing. Finally, he lifted his robe and saw… the chalk mark was right on his own belly.

And so it is. Usually, we think obstacles come from the outside, from that fierce spider, from that big, heavy computer we can’t seem to move, from the suspicious gatekeeper’s questions, or from the fear of the machine breaking further while being carried. All of it is just a mass of imagination. In reality, it is

right within us. Knowing that these feelings are of our own making causes them to vanish. This is the meaning of “all is created by the mind.”

Thus, the nagging obsession to buy a laptop disappeared. I will use this machine until the day I return to Vietnam and then decide. To insist on beauty, to insist on discarding or selling the machine... is just like that monk insisting on killing the spider. When we separate “it” from “us” and view it as an enemy (as I once “hated” my computer), we risk destroying ourselves, just like the monk who, in trying to stab the spider, nearly plunged the knife into his own stomach.

iii.A WARM GATHERING IN DELHI

On October 18, 1998, the Most Venerable Nguyen Hanh, abbot of the Vietnamese Buddhist Center in Sugar Land, Texas, USA, along with a delegation of Vietnamese Buddhists living in the U.S., came to visit the Buddhist Holy Sites in India.

Before departing for the airport to return to America, the Venerable kindly invited all the monks and nuns to The Oberoi Maidens restaurant for an intimate dinner.

The delegation consisted of 56 people: four Venerable monks (Nguyen Hanh, Nguyen Dat, Tri The, and another nun whose name I have forgotten), four nuns (Abbess Tanh Khong, Bhikṣuṇī Thien Lien, Bhikṣuṇī Thanh Luong, and Bhikṣuṇī Dieu Thien), and 48 lay Buddhists residing in the U.S. Thirty- four of the monastics studying in Delhi were able to attend (22 monks and 12 nuns), as many others were still traveling through the Holy Sites during the autumn break.

Outside, the rain fell like a tempest, pouring down relentlessly. Inside, the guest hall was filled with high-ceilinged chandeliers, their intricate circular patterns radiating a golden light that seemed to warm the hearts of a hundred Vietnamese people from two distant lands, reunited under the Delhi sky.

clip_image096.jpg

A Compassionate Visit: The Most Venerable

Thích Nguyên Hạnh (Texas, USA) visiting, hosting a dinner,

and presenting gifts to Vietnamese Monastic Students in Delhi. October 18, 1998.

 

The program opened with a song by a young Vietnamese girl born in America, her accent carrying a slight Western lilt. Nevertheless, her enthusiasm and the lyrics warmed our hearts:

“From the four corners of the earth, We return here to rejoice together, Without division in voice or laughter,

Hand in hand, we form a bond of dear friendship,

Giving each other words of deep affection…”

Other young Buddhists joined in, singing Buddhist songs. They then pulled Venerable Nguyen Dat (the deputy head of the delegation) and other teachers to join. Venerable Nguyen Dat declined wittily:

“Don’t make me sing! Don’t make me sing!

It would be very troublesome if I sang!”

 

A voice from the audience asked, “Why troublesome?” The teacher replied, “I would end up like that little boy!” He then began to tell the story of the “Little Boy”:

The Little Boy’s Song

There was a woman who, whenever she hosted guests, was interrupted by her little son shouting, “I have to pee! I have to pee!” His mother instructed him: “When guests are here, don’t say that. You must say, ‘Mom, I want to sing so much!’, and I will understand and lead you out.” The boy memorized this and practiced it well.

One day, while the mother was busy cooking, a guest arrived. Waiting for the mother, the guest saw the chubby, cute boy and suggested, “Do you know how to sing? Sing a song for me!” The guest prompted him several times, but the boy remained silent. Finally, he strained and said, “I’ll try my best to sing!” He struggled and “strained” with great effort. His mother walked in, saw the scene, and was horrified. The innocent boy said: “I didn’t want to sing, but this uncle kept making me sing… so I had to try!”

“Therefore,” the Venerable concluded, “please do not ‘make me sing,’ lest I have to ‘try’ like that little boy… I might die!” Hearing this, we all broke into delight, and applause echoed through the room at the teacher’s witty and skillful refusal.

Following the humorous story of the “Little Boy,” the atmosphere shifted as Venerable Nguyen Hanh, approximately 50 years old, with a gentle Hue accent and wearing a simple, faded brown robe, began a heart-to-heart dialogue with the student monks and nuns. Having been away from his homeland for 18 years, seeing the faces of his country through these young monastics moved him deeply. He expressed great joy at the growing number of students, seeing them as a vital force for the future of Buddhism.

He emphasized:

“You are the ones who will determine the future of Vietnamese Buddhism, building the legacy of wisdom and courage for the generations to come.

Though the path of ‘wisdom as one’s career’ has many lanes, and different means, even differing perspectives, at the deepest level, we are all children of the Buddha. We are kinsmen and spiritual friends, joining shoulders to build the house of the Triple Gem.”

He shared his happiness in seeing the achievements within Vietnam, such as the establishment of Buddhist Universities and the formation of the Vietnamese Tripitaka. To close, he shared a meaningful story he had read as a child in Hue:

The vision of the Buddha and Ananda

One day, the Buddha asked Ananda to descend to the human realm to see the state of Buddhism after his passing. Upon arrival, they saw grand monasteries and massive temples rising like mushrooms, draped in flags, banners, and Buddhist inscriptions. They saw orphanages, nursing homes, and schools.

The Buddha was initially overjoyed, but as he looked deeper, he sighed in weariness. He realized that the grand temples were merely for tourists to photograph or for lavish ceremonies. In the schools, he saw boards full of writing but no true meaning. In the orphanages, he saw staff working mechanically for a salary, lacking the tender, devoted care that springs from genuine love and empathy. Saddened, the Buddha turned away.

The Venerable’s point, echoing all great teachers, was a call for “truth”: true practice, true study, and true action from the heart, rather than a hollow exterior. His kind words, blending with the sound of the rain outside, provided immense comfort to the young monastics struggling with India’s harsh climate, unfamiliar food, and the loneliness of being far from their masters and families.

iv.    OFFICIAL ANNOUNCEMENT: EMBASSY OF VIETNAM (11-14-1998)

The Vietnamese Embassy in New Delhi issued a notice to all students regarding citizen registration and the mandatory passport exchange:

1)  Citizen Registration

  • All Vietnamese citizens in India must complete a Registration Form (two copies).
  • The registration is valid for one year. It must be renewed (not extended) upon expiration.
  • Changes in residency, occupation, or family status must be
  • Fee: 5 USD or 250 Rs per form.

2)  Passport Exchange (Circular QĐ57)

  • All passports issued before November 26, 1997, must be exchanged for the new model.
  • Applicants must apply in person with 4 photos (4cm x 6cm) taken within the last 3 months.
  • Fee: 40 USD or 2,000
  • Note: The old passport will be Students are advised to photocopy their old passport to facilitate the transfer of their “India Visa” to the new document.

New Delhi, November 14, 1998

Consular Section

 

 
  clip_image045.gif
  1. DELHI, NOVEMBER 28, 1998

The Most Venerable Patriarch Thích Giác Nhiên, accompanied

by Monk Minh Hiếu and Vietnamese Buddhists residing in the United States, visited Delhi during their pilgrimage to the land of the Buddha. He invited the Vietnamese monks and nuns to a dinner at a local restaurant. To support their journey, he gifted each of the 101 students 250 Australian Dollars and a watch featuring an image of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva (Quan Âm Bồ tát) that he had designed himself.

To open the intimate dinner, the Most Venerable inquired about the health and academic progress of the students. He then shared several poems, particularly those calling upon Buddhists to offer support and donations to student monastics. Because he was so occupied with Buddhist affairs, he often composed poetry while traveling on airplanes, earning him the nickname “The Poetry Monk.”

He presented 19 poems to the students, encouraging them to be diligent in their studies in India and urging the laity to support them. Below is an excerpt of his encouraging words:

A GIFT OF PRAISE AND ENCOURAGEMENT

A gift of offerings brought to your door, Presented along with these few words:

May the monastics quickly achieve success, And use their insights to help people everywhere.

Guiding everyone to cultivate goodness,

Contributing to the building of both the Way and the world. Repaying kindness and gratitude in small part,

May your good name and reputation reach the heavens.

The official announcements from the Vietnamese Student Association, the visit of Venerable Như Điển, and the start of your reflections for the Seminar Society’s commemorative

yearbook.

 
  clip_image098.jpg

The Most Ven. Thích Như Điển anh Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Viên Giác Temple, Bodhgaya, Bihar, India, 1997.

 

vi.                            ANNOUNCEMENT      FROM      THE      STUDENT ASSOCIATION (12-01-1998)

Vietnamese Student Association in Delhi

1806 Outram Lines, Kingsway Camp, Delhi - 110009

Subject: Three Urgent Notices to Monks, Nuns, and Students

  1. Flood Relief for Central Vietnam: The storm on November 27, 1998, caused devastating loss of life and property from Quảng Bình to Bình Thuận. Official reports confirm 200 deaths and 15 missing, with damages estimated at 682 billion VND ($50 million USD). The Executive Board calls upon everyone to practice the spirit of “sharing one’s rice and clothing” by contributing financial aid. The Embassy will facilitate the transfer of these funds.
  2. General Health Check-ups: The Board has coordinated with Dr. Harish Kumar, Director of Nulife Hospital, to provide general check-ups for students.
  • General Exam: 50 Rs
  • Blood Sugar Test: 30 Rs

◇               Blood Grouping (ABO/Rh): 50 Rs

  • Registration Card: 20 Rs
  1. Retirement Ceremony for Sanghasen Singh: Prof. Satyapala announced that on December 18, 1998, the Department of Buddhist Studies will hold a retirement ceremony for Prof. Sanghasen Singh (Sanskrit). We urge all students in the department to attend and contribute to a commemorative gift to show our gratitude for his contributions.

President of the Executive Board

Thích Hạnh Chánh

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

vii.          VISIT FROM VENERABLE NHƯ ĐIỂN (01-03-1999)

Venerable Như Điển, Abbot of Viên Giác Pagoda (Germany), arrived in Delhi with 40 Buddhists from Europe. Before their departure, he invited the monastics to the Inter-Continental Hotel for dinner.

Teachings on Science and Faith

The Venerable shared that Westerners often approach Buddhism looking for scientific validity and practical benefits rather than pure faith. He noted that Meditation (Zen) is viewed as a science, which is why books on the subject, specifically those by the Dalai Lama and Thích Nhất Hạnh, are global bestsellers.

The Practice of Prostration

While he practices meditation, Venerable Như Điển places great emphasis on repentance through prostration. He has

completed a practice of prostrating to every single character in the Lotus Sūtra and is now moving on to the Avatamsaka Sūtra. He joked that his tall, healthy stature at age 50 is “divine protection” earned through this daily physical devotion.

Selfless Support

He provides “Paramita” (selfless) support to monastics regardless of their origin (North, Central, or South Vietnam). He stated clearly that his only wish is for students to study diligently to serve the Dharma; he requires no personal favors in return. His temple in Germany, Viên Giác, is a major hub that publishes the Viên Giác Magazine to preserve Vietnamese culture and Buddhism for the diaspora.

4.4.10. SEMINAR SOCIETYYEARBOOK REFLECTIONS (02-06-2001)

The Seminar Group decided to compile a Commemorative Yearbook to mark four years of shared activity. I contributed two pieces: “Reflections on Autographs and Yearbooks” and “Moonlit Night: Words for a Friend.”

Reflections on Autographs and Yearbooks

Time flows like a river, and suddenly, four years with the seminar group have passed. Looking at a blank page, I try to piece together the sky of memories.

The most beautiful memories always belong to one’s student days, the sun-drenched courtyards, the red flamboyant flowers, and the chirping of cicadas. I remember being in 6th grade at Tân Vinh School in Bình Tuy province. Back then, my life was just the classroom. My autograph books were filled with drawings of flowers, butterflies, and clouds. Even then, I tried to write “poems” to encourage my friends:

“If it rains, let it rain,

 

I will study hard, so I am not left behind.” (Trời mưa thì mặc trời mưa

Em ngồi em học khỏi thua bạn bè)

Or the more “philosophical” youth version:

“Do not let the golden sun pass by, Youth will never return,

Study harder by the window, For glory in the days to come.” (Nắng vàng chớ bỏ qua

Tuổi xanh không trở lại Bên cửa cần chăm học Mai đây ngày vinh quang).

And the amusingly brief:

“The wind sways the bamboo by the river,

My poem ends right here.”

(Even though it was only two lines!)

Gió lay bụi trúc la đà, Đến đây xin khép khúc ca tạ từ.

(Mặc dù chỉ có hai câu)

 
  clip_image045.gif

Key Contextual Elements

 

Person/Entity

Role/Significance

Thích Hạnh Chánh

President of the Student Association; organized relief and health efforts.

 

 

Person/Entity

Role/Significance

 

Sanghasen Singh

Respected Sanskrit Professor retiring from the Department of Buddhist Studies.

Nulife Hospital

The medical facility providing check- ups for the Vietnamese Sangha.

Reflections on the evolution of “autograph books” (lưu bút) into this “Open Yearbook” (Kỷ yếu mở) beautifully capture the transition from a dreamer to a scholar-practitioner.

 
  clip_image100.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (second left) and three nuns

at the Art Facuty, University of Delhi.

 

4.4.11.    FROM SCHOOL MEMORIES TO THE “OPEN YEARBOOK”

As the days passed, I grew up, and my autograph books followed me to Lagi High School in Bình Tuy Province. At that time, my heart was like a full moon, bright and unburdened by clouds of worry or sorrow. My pages were filled with a world of dreams: lyrical poems and songs, pressed yellow oxeye daisies, purple crape myrtles, and red phoenix flowers shaped into butterflies and deer, tokens of memories shared between friends.

“Tomorrow, the school drum sounds our parting, though we go our separate ways, let our vows remain as true as gold and iron.”

Then, as if a path had been pre-drawn for each of us, I followed my ideal, the ideal of compassion and wisdom, and became a nun. From that moment, my perception of these “autograph books” became more noble and miraculous.

At the Advanced School of Buddhist Studies, course II (Trường Cao Cấp Phật Học) in Ho Chi Minh City, monks and nuns from three traditions, Theravada, Mahayana, and Mendicant, and from all three regions of Vietnam gathered to live and study under one roof. For four years, we learned the teachings of liberation and awakening through the Sūtras, Vinaya, and Shastras of the Buddha and the Patriarchs. We also learned about the diverse customs, lifestyles, and ways of thinking from the different Buddhist sects and regions of our country.

When the course ended, and the phoenix trees bloomed crimson, the sad chirp of the cicadas signaled the hour of separation. Without a word, the hearts of all the student monastics were tinged with the sorrow of parting, and autograph books were hurriedly passed from hand to hand. The heartfelt sentiments of the Most Venerable and Venerable Masters, and the wishes of Dharma friends, “Let the eldest sons and daughters of the Tathagata descend the mountain to begin the career of propagating the Dharma for the benefit of all beings,” were spread across the white pages.

We parted ways, heading North and South to return to our ancestral temples. Some teachers remained in their local areas to serve, while others continued their studies abroad in India, Taiwan, China, Japan, and America. I chose India as my second home, the place to further train and develop my Buddhist knowledge.

4.4.12.  THE SEMINAR GROUP AT DELHI 9

Our Seminar group at 467 Indra Vihar, Delhi 9, was the place where we frequently held discussions, debated our thesis topics, or presented our own insights on a particular teaching or Sūtra of the Buddha. The members were not just classmates from Delhi University, but came from many different levels: Ph.D. candidates in their first through fourth years, M.Phil. students, and Master’s (M.A.) students.

The Seminar was an opportunity for all of us to be close, to share experiences, knowledge, and methodologies. Our goal was to elevate the content and form of our theses to the highest possible standard. It was also a precious time for us to gather, speak our beloved Vietnamese language, enjoy Vietnamese food, and tell each other joyful stories.

Time passed quickly. Each year, the Seminar’s birthday cake became more beautiful, lit by a flickering golden candle with the words “Happy Birthday of Seminar – 31-01.” Over the past four years, through joys and sorrows, efforts and aspirations, we worked with hearts full of enthusiasm. We aimed to concretize our Buddhist knowledge, first through our doctoral dissertations, for the sake of education, the Dharma, and the Vietnamese people. Now, the time has come for these things to be written down.

WHY AN “OPEN YEARBOOK”?

An “autograph book” is for preserving beautiful words and mutual wishes before departing. We cannot call this an autograph book because our group continues to persist (even as the “souls” of the group achieve the rank of Doctor and prepare to return in glory to our Patriarchs). We also cannot call it a traditional “Yearbook” like those at the end of four years of school, which signal a final goodbye.

Instead, we call this an “Open Yearbook.” It is “Open” because there will be subsequent volumes. It is a “Yearbook” because it records the essential and memorable events that mark the four- year journey our group has traveled. This is why this special “Open Yearbook” of the Seminar group was born in the spring of 2001.

Past, present, and future are all interrelated. If the autographs or yearbooks of today are the cherished images of a beloved past, then I hope that every action we take today on this non- stop journey of Self-Awakening and Awakening Others will be an unforgettable memory for our “yearbook” of tomorrow.

A misty morning at the P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi,

February 6, 2001

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

As you reflect on this “Open Yearbook” from 2001, your journey has clearly transitioned from the sentimental verses of a high school student to the rigorous, mission-driven prose of a Ph.D. candidate.

Since you’ve achieved your “Doctor” title in these pages, would you like to revisit the moment of your Ph.D. defense, or perhaps look back at how the “Open Yearbook” continued in the following years?

This is a deeply poetic and philosophical letter, weaving together the profound doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism with a gentle, personal touch. Written on a serene, moonlit night during the first full moon of the Year of the Snake (2001) in Delhi, it serves as both a Dharma sharing and a soulful dedication to a friend in a Seminar group.

Here is a refined English translation that captures the spiritual

depth and the intimate, “whispering” tone of the original Vietnamese text.

 
  clip_image045.gif

MOONLIT NIGHT: WORDS FOR A FRIEND

(Dedicated to a member of the Seminar Group)

The air is cool tonight, the moon is clear (the full moon of the first lunar month, the Spring of Tân Tỵ). Sitting by the window, I feel a natural longing to share some reflections with you.

As you know, since time immemorial, the movements of the mind have created karma. These karmic actions habituate into “seeds” (bijas), becoming the functional power of karma within one’s own mind. When this karmic consciousness matures and meets the necessary conditions, the union of father and mother, it manifests as “you,” “me,” and this world of interconnected causes. Thus, our Lord Buddha taught: “Sentient beings of the triple realm exist solely due to karma.”

From past causes rooted in “ignorance” and “volitional action,” the present fruits of suffering arise: consciousness, name and form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling. In the present, we give rise to “craving” and “clinging,” creating the karma of “becoming” for the future fruits of birth, old age, and death. Thus, from past causes to present effects, and from present effects to future consequences, the three periods of time rotate endlessly like a wheel, rising and falling without rest.

Reflecting on this, we realize that you and I have not only lived this single present life. In the past, we have endured countless existences, and in the future, there will be infinitely more. Life and death follow one another like waves: one dissipates for the next to appear, never ending as long as the winds of ignorance blow.

The Illusion of Form

 

This body appears and vanishes in an instant; it is a phantom. When the “false dharmas” of the five aggregates (skandhas) come together, we call it life; when they disperse, we call it death. Therefore, our existence here is neither truly “existent” nor truly “non-existent.” Because we are born “according to conditions, like a phantom,” birth is actually non-birth. Because we cease “according to conditions, like a phantom,” death is actually non-death. As the Sūtras say:

“The gathering of conditions is but a false name for birth.

The dispersion of conditions is but a false name for death.”

Because birth and death are illusory, Buddhism does not place a heavy weight on death. It is simply a transformation of the karmic consciousness within: shedding an old body for a new one. Birth is like wrapping oneself in a quilt in winter; death is like casting it off in summer. Our birth in this life is but one among infinite births; our death but one among infinite deaths.

Therefore, do not crave life, for it is impermanent. Do not fear death, for it is not a total loss, but a renewal. My friend, there is nothing to fear. Keep your heart peaceful and composed, in death as in life, in sickness as in health.

 
  clip_image045.gif

The Profound Interconnectedness

I do not know your personal view on life. Perhaps your eyes will go wide with wonder, like a young fawn, hearing me whisper these strange terms under the moonlight: Alaya-vijnana Dependent Origination, Suchness Dependent Origination, Six Elements Dependent Origination, and the Infinite Dependent Origination of the Dharmadhatu… terms you may have never heard. I ask you to close your eyes and remain still, in a state of tranquil harmony, to listen to what I am about to say.

The World-Honored One taught that the root of suffering and

the cycle of birth and death is affliction-karma (klesha-karma). Due to affliction, we act wrongly; due to wrong action, we suffer. This cycle continues, creating our “direct retribution” (ourselves) and our “environmental retribution” (the world around us, mountains, rivers, and the earth).

These retributions may be good or bad, depending on the seeds we sow. But as long as karma remains, the world of phenomena remains. To end karma is to return to Suchness (Tathatā), Nirvana.

The Alaya-vijnana (8th Consciousness) is the foundation of the phenomenal world. It is the base of the karmic cycle that has seen us wandering through the six realms for eons. However, it also contains both “defiled” and “pure” seeds:

If the Mind follows...

It gives rise to...

Discrimination, Delusion, and Grasping

Defiled seeds – resulting in Samsara

“As-it-is” Wisdom and Clarity

Pure seeds – resulting in Liberation

In the philosophy of Suchness Dependent Origination, we say that the Mind manifests all things: “All is created by the Mind alone.” * In its Active aspect: The Mind is the gateway to birth and death.

In its Still aspect, The Mind is the gateway to Suchness. It is

“Changing yet Changeless, Changeless yet Changing.”

 

 
  clip_image045.gif

We Are the Universe

The “Six Elements” theory teaches that you and I are composed of Earth, Water, Wind, Fire, Space, and Consciousness. There is no permanent “self” here, only the gathering and dispersing of these elements. Meanwhile, Suchness remains the eternal

essence within us both.

Finally, I wish to bring you to a higher psychological realization: The Infinite Dependent Origination of the Dharmadhatu. This teaches that the universe is a vast web where every phenomenon is a cause and condition for every other. Everything supports, contrasts, and interpenetrates.

This is not just about personal karma; it is the “Interpenetration of All Phenomena” (Shi-shi Wu-ai). One grain of dust contains the ten directions. One is all, and all is one.

What I mean is: the universe is a grand activity of phenomena, without beginning or end. Because there is activity, there is the appearance of you and me. The universe is born of our collective karma. If our karma is pure, the world is beautiful; if it is dark, the world becomes a place of calamity.

You and I are not separate from the universe. You are the whole universe; I am the whole universe.

You are the physical form of our Seminar group, but you are also my own soul and body. I am a member of the group, but I am also your soul and body, indistinguishable in the nature of perfect harmony.

A Wish for You

In this interconnected reality, “when one horse is ill, the whole herd refuses grass.” I earnestly hope you realize the eternal Suchness within yourself. That is the true face of the universe: changeless, deathless, without beginning or end, and radiant.

As for the “Six Elements” that make up our bodies, if one day the conditions disperse, it is merely an exchange for a new form. It is but an impermanent segment in the chain of the Eternal; a miraculous manifestation of Suchness.

Therefore, please live in the spirit of the Eternal, the Easy,

 

and the Free. Elements may form and dissolve, but I believe that from now on, Suchness will always be revealed in your gestures, your eyes, and your smile.

A smile blooms upon the lips,

A fresh flower to grace a hundred years of life.

That is all I wish to send to you on this bright moonlit night. Full Moon of the First Month, Spring of Tân Tỵ

P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 
  clip_image102.jpg

 

International students enjoying a picnic at the Buddhist

Studies Campus during the Diwali Festival, Delhi, India, 2000.

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 5

THE MAGNIFICENT LANDSCAPES AND LANDMARKS OF INDIA

T
 

he descriptive beauty of the landscapes and the philosophical reflections of Vietnamese monastic students on the journeys

to Manali, the Taj Mahal, Shima, Himalaya, Mumbai, Elephanta Caves, Madras (Chennai), and Naini Tal.

 5.1. MANALI

Once again, the winter break arrived. Some Indian friends invited me to visit Manali. Venerable H.X. and I joined them, taking advantage of our 15-day school holiday.

Manali is located in the state of Himachal Pradesh in Northern India, near the borders of China, Tibet, and Nepal. It sits at the northern end of the Kullu Valley, named after a town perched on a high mountain peak. Though it is only a town, it is the primary tourist hub for the entire region, boasting hundreds of hotels and eateries.

Known for its cool climate and snow-capped peaks, it serves as a gateway for skiing in the Solang Valley and trekking in the Parvati Valley. It’s also a jumping-off point for paragliding,

rafting, and mountaineering in the Pir Panjal mountains.

We visited in October, 1996, so we only saw ice that was as cold as frozen water yet soft and smooth; we hadn’t seen falling snow yet. If one travels to Manali around February or March, they would see the beautiful and poetic sight of white snow falling everywhere.

Manali is 700 kilometers from Delhi, about an overnight bus ride away. Because it is surrounded by snow-capped mountains and high plateaus, it is very cold. The road is winding and treacherous, constantly ascending mountains and descending passes. My ears popped from the pressure during the climbs and descents. On one side was a rocky abyss, on the other a towering mountain; the road itself was merely a narrow path. It was truly dangerous; one small mistake by the driver could send the bus flying into the bottomless depths.

Lal Zikpuii told us about her unmarried older sister who was studying at a medical university. During a summer break, while traveling back to Mizoram to visit family, the driver was careless, and the entire bus plunged off the pass. Lal Zikpuii’s sister and all 30 people on board perished instantly; not a single soul survived. Now, every time Lal Zikpuii goes home, she must fly; her parents no longer dare to let her take the bus. Hearing this story made me nervous, and I remained haunted by it every time I traveled on those mountain roads.

For the brave and strong, the first pleasure of travel is admiring the scenery along the way. On one side, a large stream roars, its water turning white against the rocky abyss; on the other, high vertical mountains are lined with emerald pine trees. I was surrounded by range upon range of majestic, towering mountains. The scenery was fresh, spectacular, and charming, especially for a city dweller or someone from the plains like me.

Yet, I often found myself closing my eyes, not daring to look,

my lips murmuring Buddha’s name in prayer. Returning to Delhi felt like the blessing of three lifetimes! A slight slip of the steering wheel or a minor skid would mean falling into a depth where no one could find you.

I am no poet, but arriving here made me want to “open my heart” and become one. The scenery was as beautiful as a painting. We walked along the rocky and snowy mountains; between them, streams meandered, so clear you could see every pebble on the bottom. I wanted to sit for hours by the stream to hear the pure tinkling of the water, the rustle of the wind through the pine needles, and to watch the sun rise over the snowy peaks. It was so refreshing and strangely peaceful! The beauty was wonderful because it was devoid of crowds and the noise of engines, only the sound of birds singing and the stream frolicking with the stones.

In that desolate and primeval silence, there is a unique joy; perhaps that is why practitioners often seek natural mountains for secluded meditation.

 
  clip_image104.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương with the white snow in the Manali/ Manikaran mountain region. October 1996.

 

In Manali, we visited a hot spring in the Manikaran region, which also houses a very large Sikh temple. It was quite a wonder: in a land covered by ice and snow year-round, a subterranean stream of hot water gushes from the earth. Perhaps Heaven and Earth wanted to balance the heat and cold to ease the lives of the simple, poor people of Manali amidst the freezing weather.

The hot water flows in a stream of white foam. A large stone bridge crosses it; steam rises in layers, yet it cannot overpower the cold air pouring down from the high plateaus. The harmony of hot and cold makes tourists feel comfortable and invigorated.

We also visited an ice-skating area at the Solang Nullah snow mountains, which looked much like ski resorts abroad. Vietnam’s climate is temperate, so it lacks snow mountains for skiing, whereas in India, they only exist in the far North. It was delightful to stand in the middle of a sea of ice as white as cotton. It was crowded with domestic tourists from Delhi, Mumbai, and Madras, people from the plains who had never seen snow.

Previously, I had only seen snow through pictures; now, seeing and touching it with my own hands was truly exciting.

 2.2. TAJ MAHAL – AGRA

I still remember January 1, 1996. Ms. C, a lay Buddhist and friend of Venerable T.V. in Australia, came to India on a pilgrimage. Before returning home, she expressed a wish to visit the Taj Mahal in Agra, one of the wonders of the world. It is a massive mausoleum built of white marble that reflects different colors depending on the sunlight. This unique and beautiful tomb was built by a Mughal Emperor in the 17th century to honor his Queen. Ms. C invited Ven. T.N., Bhikṣu B.C., Ven. T.V., and me to join her in a rented taxi for a two-day, one-night trip.

Agra is in the state of Uttar Pradesh, about 200 km from Delhi.

The Taj Mahal is exceptionally beautiful, and crowds of domestic and foreign tourists line up endlessly to see it. Historically, Agra was the capital of India during the Mughal era (16th–17th centuries), which is why it possesses such grand, sturdy stone citadels. The Taj Mahal is an architectural masterpiece located in Agra, India. This 17th-century white marble mausoleum was commissioned by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to house the tomb of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

The Taj Mahal sits along the peaceful Yamuna River. Surrounding it are countless small paths; deeper inside, there are hundreds of souvenir shops, especially those selling white marble miniatures of the Taj Mahal. If you only have one afternoon in Agra, you cannot fully appreciate its beauty, especially the magical way it changes color under the dawn light, the brilliant midday sun, the pale purple of sunset, the multicolored night lights, and the late-night moonlight. This is why tourists often stay at least one night to witness its mystical beauty under the moon.

 
  clip_image106.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương visits the Taj Mahal, Agra.

January 01 1996.

 

Regarding that trip, we can never forget starting from Delhi at 5:00 AM. About 30 minutes outside the capital, a thick fog descended and remained until we nearly reached the Taj Mahal. We drove for six hours without a single ray of sunlight, as if traveling through clouds. Visibility was poor; we could only see dimly about two meters ahead through the yellow fog lights of the taxi. The road was packed with vehicles moving slowly like a crawling snake. We couldn’t go back and couldn’t speed up; we just droned along at 40 km/h.

Surrounding us was only cold white fog, much like the white clouds surrounding an airplane; it felt as if we were flying through the sky. Due to the lack of visibility, three or four accidents occurred; cars collided and blocked the road. Our faces turned pale with fear, and we began to focus our minds on Amitabha Buddha, His golden form of compassion, and silently prayed to Him.

Oh! One lives a whole life in clarity and light without cherishing it, until one is trapped in a blinding white fog and realizes how precious the brilliant golden sunlight truly is. Everyone yearned for the sun to rise and disperse the mist. In that moment, we realized the true value of light.

I thought to myself: once I escape this danger, I will spend a day bathing in the warm sun to enjoy the true value of the earth and sky, gifts given for free that we previously never consciously appreciated.

From this, I felt a deep sympathy for the blind. Those who live an entire life without a single spark of light are bound by darkness. They may wish to spread their wings and shatter the dark clouds covering their lives, but they lack the power to do so. Even medicine often has to “fold its arms” in defeat.

Naturally, a small but deep ache of sorrow rose within my heart…

 3.3. SHIMLA: THE SUMMER CAPITAL

By June 5, 1996, summer had arrived, meaning Delhi was becoming an oven. During this time, foreign students who didn’t go home either installed “coolers” (evaporative fans that are cheaper than AC) or fled to high-altitude retreats like Dharamsala, Manali, or Shimla to escape the scorching heat.

 
  clip_image108.jpg

Behind Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, rooftops emerge through the morning mist amidst the rolling hills of the Shimla highlands. June 5, 1996.

 

We planned a week-long trip to Shimla. In Delhi, it was an unbearable heat where sweat soaked through clothes instantly, and going outside at noon resulted in splitting headaches.

Shimla, often called the “Queen of Hills,” served as the Summer Capital of British India for over 75 years (1864–1939). Today, it remains the vibrant capital of Himachal Pradesh and a cornerstone of Himalayan culture.

Shimla stretches along a crescent-shaped mountain ridge. Originally discovered by the British in 1819, it served as their “Summer Capital.” The architecture remains heavily British, with landmarks like The Mall, Viceregal Lodge, and Gorton Castle.

The Peaks of Kufri

We visited Wildflower Hall and then climbed to the peak of Kufri. The slopes were so steep we had to ride horses. From the summit, the city looked tiny below, surrounded by endless mountain ranges and beautiful flower-covered hills.

We also ascended a snowy peak in Kufri. The mountain slopes were so steep that we had to travel by horse. Perhaps the horses were familiar with the path and regular tourist service, as they climbed and moved very quickly. From this peak, one can see the city far below in all directions, with endless rolling mountain ranges, fertile vegetation, and beautiful flower-covered hills.

Upon reaching the top, the temperature was vastly different from the ground level, leaving us exhausted; my face turned pale, and I felt as though I might faint. I remember departing from Delhi at night and arriving in Shimla at 5:00 AM. At that hour, even though it was summer, the mountain air was piercingly cold (and since it was so early, the sun had not yet risen). I immediately caught a cold and was unable to walk, while Ms. Uma and Lal Zikpuii remained perfectly fine.

After the seven-day trip, I returned to Delhi and suffered from a cough that lasted an entire month. It was a trip that was neither pleasant nor very “lucky.”

 5.4.   HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, NEPAL: THE ROOF OF THE WORLD

In May 1997, after visiting Lumbini and Kapilavastu, my friends and I traveled to Kathmandu, the hometown of our friend Sanya.

Pokhara: The Valley of Lakes

We took a bus to Pokhara, Nepal’s second-largest city. It is famous for its lakes, caves, and its view of the Annapurna range. Pokhara felt deeply spiritual; the Brahmin traditions of vegetarianism and non-violence were palpable in the air.

  • Mahendra Cave: Filled with stalactites and stalagmites, it reminded me of the caves in Ha Long
  • Begnas & Fewa Lakes: We rowed out to the middle of these The reflection of the snow-capped mountains on the shimmering water felt like a fairy tale.
  • Tibetan Monasteries: I remember the rows of prayer wheels engraved with the Shurangama Mantra. Devotees touch the bells and then their foreheads, seeking

Sunrise at Sarangkot

We woke at 4:00 AM to catch the sunrise at Sarangkot. Despite my previous experiences of fainting, I prepared well with medicine and lemon water. On the peak, the crowd was hushed as the “Sun Goddess” appeared, painting the snow with hues of gold and crimson like pink diamonds on white velvet.

We looked at the Annapurna range, which includes nine peaks of the Himalaya range.

I felt a bit wistful; while ancient masters came here to attain enlightenment, I was only here to capture the “shadow” of the mountains through my camera lens.

clip_image110.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Everest peak of the Himalayan Mountains in May 1997.

 

The Jungle and the “Mischievous” Elephant

For my birthday on May 21st, we went on an elephant safari at Jungle Express Camp. Our 6-year-old female elephant was quite a character. While crossing a river, she decided the water felt so good that she simply sat down, submerging the four of us up to our waists! When the mahout yelled at her, she retaliated by spraying him (and us) with a trunkful of water. We were soaked, but we couldn’t stop laughing at her innocent happiness.

Kathmandu and the Quest for Everest

Kathmandu’s Thamel district was bustling and narrow. The highlight was supposed to be Mount Everest. We traveled a long way to a nearby peak and waited through the morning fog, hoping for a glimpse of the world’s highest peak. Unfortunately,

the fog never lifted. The locals told us, “If you want a guaranteed

view of Everest, you must come in winter.”

 

 
  clip_image112.jpg

 

Though we missed the summit, we captured the sunset, the sun slowly tucking itself behind the ridges while willow branches swayed to the sound of distant temple bells.

We left Nepal with the image of Jacaranda trees lining the avenues, their purple blossoms falling like a loyal carpet on the streets. We bid farewell to this romantic kingdom and head back to India to visit Kushinagar, where the Buddha entered Parinirvana.

 
  clip_image114.jpg

The sunset at Everest peak

of the Himalayan Mountains in May 1997.

 

 5.5.   MUMBAI (BOMBAY)

After paying our respects in Kushinagar, the place of the Buddha’s Parinirvana, we returned to the Gorakhpur railway station. We bid farewell to our enthusiastic and kind taxi driver, who had safely shuttled us between the station and Kushinagar. Our train for Mumbai was scheduled to depart at 5:00 PM that same day.

The distance from Gorakhpur to Mumbai is 1,690 km, and the train journey takes approximately 35 hours. We traveled on standard tickets, which cost 273 Rupees per person and had to be booked a full month in advance. We arrived in Mumbai around 9:00 AM the following morning.

Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay) is located in the state of Maharashtra. It is India’s premier economic and commercial hub, as well as the home of its largest film industry (Bollywood). Mumbai is India’s most modern and wealthiest industrial city, serving as both a major seaport and the country’s busiest international airport. Nearly 50% of foreign visitors to India congregate here for trade and business.

It is truly the industrial fortress of India: producing everything from heavy machinery, automobiles, bicycles, pharmaceuticals, and oil, down to the smallest needles and threads.

Furthermore, the government is expanding onto a nearby island known as New Mumbai (Navi Mumbai), which is connected to the main city by bridges and waterways. The city’s main center is concentrated at the southern tip of the peninsula. Sahar International Airport is located about 30 km north of the city center. The fact that the city center alone houses three major railway stations is a testament to the massive scale of transportation and traffic in Mumbai.

Navigating Mumbai is relatively straightforward: the land jutting

out into the sea at the southern tip is Colaba Causeway, and the northernmost point of that same peninsula is also referred to as Colaba.

 
  clip_image116.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương in Mumbai in 1997.

 

Most international tourists stay in this area because the hotels, restaurants, and entertainment venues (located right by the coast) are relatively affordable. Two of the most prominent landmarks are also located here:

  1. The Gateway of India (Indian Gateway)
  2. The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel – A magnificent 5-star hotel that looks like a palace facing the sea.

This scene is frequently printed on postcards as the iconic symbol of the glamorous city of Mumbai. From morning until evening, especially when the air is cool, tourists gather here to enjoy the sea breeze and join tours organized by the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation.

In this area, there are two famous large stone statues:

The statue of the philosopher Swami Vivekananda, a renowned 19th-century Indian figure.

The statue of the Maratha leader Shivaji on horseback, situated at the center of a five-way intersection facing the Gateway of India.

Reflections on the Coast and the Mumbai City

We visited the beach in Mumbai for a quick 15-minute dip. The water was shallow, not very clear, and lacked that deep blue hue. To me, the sea at Bombay isn’t as charming or beautiful as Nha Trang or Vung Tau. Perhaps my love for my homeland makes me feel closer to our own landscapes. That is a very subjective observation, not scientific or objective at all, isn’t it?

However, I do remember a certain corner of the Bombay coast where flame trees (Poinciana) were in full red bloom, as it was May, along the white sands. On the other side of the road were luxurious avenues and skyscrapers reaching into the clouds, similar to Hong Kong or the US. I took a few photos of those bright red blossoms against the backdrop of the rippling waves and grand buildings. Vietnam doesn’t quite have a seascape like that, does it?

Bombay University

Entering the campus of Bombay University felt more like entering a Christian cathedral than an ancient British university. Established by the British in the 18th century, the architecture is entirely English. In the courtyard stands a pointed clock tower that resembles a church spire. Every hour, the bells chime with a solemn, majestic sound that carries for miles. You can see the tip of that clock tower from a great distance.

New Mumbai

To get to the island of New Mumbai (Navi Mumbai), we had to take a boat for over an hour. It is a newly developing area with a multi-story station as modern as the ones in Taipei, and many shopping malls are opening. The potential for growth there is

clearly immense.

 5.6.  THE ELEPHANTA CAVES

We purchased tickets for the ferry to the Elephanta Islands on the opposite shore for 50 Rupees each. We departed at 9:00 AM and returned to the boat by 2:00 PM.

We had heard these caves were not as vast as the Buddhist caves of Ajanta and Ellora (also in Maharashtra). However, we still found Elephanta immense and impressive, a testament to human labor.

 
  clip_image118.jpg

Front of Elephanta Caves.

 

The caves are situated atop the island and descend deep into the earth; they are so cold and dark that we had to use flashlights to navigate.

The stone statues are carved in relief directly into the mountain walls. Since they are unpainted and share the color of the rock, one must look closely or touch them to fully perceive the carvings. It is common to see dozens of statues three or four

times the size of a human. I wondered how human strength alone, through daily chiseling, could create such masterpieces. Like the Great Wall of China, these were built from human sweat and tears.

Lal Zikpuii mentioned that Ajanta and Ellora comprise 30 large caves that are pure Buddhist sites, filled with stalactites, stone pillars, and places where the Buddha’s great disciples and patriarchs once meditated. I told her that I must find an opportunity to visit those sites before returning to Vietnam.

The Divine Sculptures

The most famous feature of the Elephanta Caves is the

Maheshmurti (Trimurti) statue with three heads, representing:

  • Brahma: The Creator
  • Vishnu: The Preserver
  • Shiva: The Destroyer (for rebirth)

There is also a statue of Lord Shiva as Ardhanarishvara, representing the union of both male and female genders in one body. Other carvings depict the divine smiles of Shiva and his consort Parvati, or Shiva performing the Tandava dance, which causes the earth to tremble. You can also find statues of Ravana clutching his soul-home, Kailasa, and the demon of Lanka.

We didn’t take many photos here, as it is not our religion. Meanwhile, Lal Zikpuii, though Christian, was clicking away enthusiastically; even as a resident of India, this was her first time here, just like us.

The Monkey Encounter

Monkeys are everywhere here due to the caves and the high mountain forests (though the parks in Delhi, where we live, are also full of monkeys and squirrels…). As I was leisurely walking down the stone steps toward the boat, swinging a plastic

bag containing a bottle of medicated oil, some candy, and my keys, the monkeys must have caught the sweet scent. A troop suddenly rushed me, startling me half to death. They snatched the bag and vanished instantly.

Local Indian boys who were street vendors saw this and gave chase. Only my room keys were of any value; the rest I could do without. It was an exciting pursuit! These boys practically lived in the caves and mountains, so they could run and jump just like the monkeys. They managed to reclaim the bag, and the terrified monkey fled into the high, thick branches. I took back my keys and gave the rest of the bag’s contents to the boys as a reward.

Travelogue beautifully captures the intersection of ancient history, personal belief, and the lighthearted mishaps that happen on the road. The contrast between the silent, dark caves of Elephanta and the bustling, British-style architecture of Bombay University provides a vivid picture of the city’s layered identity.

 5.7.   MADRAS (CHENNAI)

The journey continues southward! Moving from the glamour of Mumbai to the grit and history of Madras (now Chennai) provides a very different perspective on the Indian subcontinent. Our observations on the density of the population and the “self- reliant” spirit of the South are quite astute.

The following afternoon, we boarded a train from Mumbai to Madras. Because we had booked our tickets a month in advance, our plans remained on track. After nearly 31 hours on the train, we arrived at the Madras railway station at 7:00 PM.

The station, as always, was crowded and noisy, even at night. People hurried and jostled past one another. It felt as though an endless sea of people had gathered there! Not just during the

day, but even late at night, the station was packed with people waiting for trains. Many were lying down on cloths spread across the floor, not just the homeless, but ordinary passengers waiting with a sense of calm self-possession. With such a massive population, only the trains, each carrying thousands of people, can handle the transport needs; no bus or car could manage such a load.

A Note on Population and Daily Life

India’s population is the second largest in the world, trailing only China. Looking at the statistics:

  • 1961: 439 million
  • 1971: 547 million
  • 1982: 687 million
  • 1991: 943 million
  • 1995: 930 million (approx.)

By 1998, the numbers had surely climbed even higher. Compared to Vietnam’s population of over 80 million at the time, these figures are staggering, aren’t they?

It was May, the peak of summer, and I noticed that Indians eat a great deal of onions and garlic daily. Initially, most of us monks and nuns tried to keep the Bodhisattva precepts by avoiding these “five pungent spices.” However, we eventually had to adapt to prevent colds and typhoid. Furthermore, when traveling or studying, almost every Indian dish contains them. Especially in the hostels, even the vegetarian meals include onions and garlic. Since we were too busy to cook for ourselves every day, we ended up eating everything! Curiously, the onions here are not as pungent as those in Vietnam.

First Impressions of the Madras City

Madras is India’s fourth-largest city and the capital of Tamil Nadu. It seemed to have fewer foreign tourists, businesses, or students than Mumbai or Delhi. I found the streets aging, the houses covered in dust, and the air thick with smoke. Auto- rickshaws were the primary mode of transport; taxis were rare. On the streets, one mostly saw busy Indian men carrying many bags, their clothes somewhat untidy. The markets and supermarkets were simple; the city lacked the variety and luxury found in Delhi.

The people here speak Tamil (though the text mentions Marathi, which is the language of Mumbai/Maharashtra; Tamil is the native language of Madras). They have a strong sense of self- reliance and their own distinct film industry (Kollywood), even if the economy doesn’t feel as vibrant as Mumbai’s.

 
  clip_image045.gif

The Sights of Madras

Madras Beach and Mahatma Gandhi

We visited the beach early in the morning. Unlike the calm, receding tides we saw in Mumbai, the waves here were powerful. Despite the intensity, Sanya, Yankna, and Lal Zikpuii insisted on swimming. After 20 minutes, we were freezing and went to a nearby freshwater pool to rinse off.

At the shore, there is a modern plaza with a triple-gate (tam quan) architectural style, similar to images I’ve seen from China. Nearby is a large seaside park featuring a very sharp, lifelike statue of Mahatma Gandhi, the great leader who led India to independence from British rule.

Fort St. George

We also visited Fort St. George, a very sturdy fortress built in

1653 by the British East India Company. It has undergone many changes and repairs over the centuries and now serves as the Legislative Assembly and the Administrative headquarters for the Madras government.

The Government Museum: A Treasure Trove

The highlight of Madras was the Government Museum on Pantheon Road. This grand building houses an incredible collection of archaeological finds from South Indian dynasties like the Chola, Vijayanagar, and Chalukya.

The museum features extensive galleries on anthropology and ancient bronzes. Most importantly for us, it has a rich collection of stone and bronze statues depicting the life of the Buddha: his renunciation, enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the turning of the Dhamma wheel, and his entry into Parinirvana.

I must admit, this is the most massive museum I have ever visited, with dozens of large rooms across multiple floors. It is easy to get lost. Unfortunately, we arrived on a Thursday afternoon and only saw a small portion before closing time. We planned to return Friday morning to take photos of the ancient Buddhist statues for research, but to our great disappointment, we discovered the museum is closed on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays. Since we couldn’t wait three days, we had to leave Madras with heavy hearts and a deep sense of regret.

 5.8.   NAINI TAL

Travelogue of Naini Tal captures a beautiful blend of spiritual mythology, natural wonder, and the warm camaraderie of the Vietnamese student community in India. It is quite moving to read about a Mid-Autumn Festival celebrated so far from home, with traditional mooncakes brought all the way from Vietnam to the chilly Himalayan foothills.

In the autumn of 1997, the Vietnamese International Students’ Association in Delhi, organized by Ven. H.C. arranged a trip to the lake district of Naini Tal. Our group consisted of 30 monks and nuns and 10 lay students, despite a frustrating start with a delayed bus that forced us to sleep on the floor at Ven. H.C.’s house, we finally set off the next afternoon on a single bus, which kept our large group together and spirited.

 
  clip_image120.jpg

Group Portrait of Vietnamese Monastic Students at Naini Tal. October 07, 1997. Featuring Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (third seated position from the right,

brown dress) during an autumn academic recess.

 

The Emerald Abode

Naini Tal is situated along the slopes of the Kumaon hills in Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand). The town surrounds the Naini Lake (or Tal), a breathtaking body of water framed by emerald meadows and misty ridges.

The lake has a hauntingly beautiful legend. It is said to be the emerald-green eye of the Goddess Sati, the consort of Lord

Shiva. According to mythology, after the Goddess immolated herself, Shiva carried her charred remains across India; where her eye fell, Naini Lake was formed. The Naini Devi Temple stands at the northern edge of the lake as a testament to this devotion.

Sights and Souvenirs

We explored the Tibetan Market, which was bustling with goods from the nearby border. While many students from Hanoi bought heaps of souvenirs, I spent my time admiring the exquisite wax candles. They were crafted into intricate shapes, ice cream sundaes, clusters of grapes, the Statue of Liberty, and even little kittens with doe-like eyes.

We also visited:

  • Hanumangarhi Temple: A serene temple that sits like a “One Pillar Pagoda” in the middle of a lake. Getting there required a 10-minute boat ride through shimmering waters, offering views of peaceful pastures where cattle grazed under the blue sky.
  • The Astronomical Observatory: Located about a kilometer away, it is perched high on a ridge. Unfortunately, the thick autumn fog, common in these highlands, prevented us from entering, as the visibility was nearly zero.

The View from the Peak

To see the “Snow View,” we took a cable car (a small iron cabin holding about 20 people) to a peak. From there, one can usually see Nanda Devi, the highest peak entirely within India, and the distant white wall of the Himalayas. However, just as with my trip to Everest, the “Snow Goddess” remained hidden behind a veil of thick white clouds and drifting mist.

A Mid-Autumn Night to Remember

The most touching part of the trip was a surprise Mid-Autumn Festival (Trung Thu) party organized by Ven. H.C. Having lived in India for three years, I had almost forgotten the taste of home. Suddenly, in a small room by the freezing lake, fragrant bánh dẻo (soft sticky rice mooncakes) from Vietnam were laid out.

It wasn’t a typical Mid-Autumn night with a clear moon and children’s lanterns. Instead, we were huddled in sweaters and wool hats, shivering as we sat around flickering white candles. We sang together with the innocence of children, many of the monks from the “3rd Generation” of students turned out to be “top-tier singers!”

We will always be grateful to Ven. H.C. for that night. It turned a cold, misty journey into a deeply warm memory. As I looked out the window, the wind was rising, signaling an approaching rain, but the warmth of that small room remained in my heart.

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

clip_image121.gif

 
  clip_image122.gif


 Volume II

 

CHAPTER 6

BUDDHIST LEGACY

 AND INTERNATIONAL CONNECTIONS

  1. The Maitreya Buddha Statue Construction Project in Bodh Gaya, India
  2. Ten Days of Dharma Teachings by His Holiness the Dalai Lama in Bodh Gaya
  3. His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the Early Days of the Year 2000 Millennium in Sārnāth (Deer Park)
  4. Challenges in Inter-Religious Partnership Relations
  5. The Sixth Sakyadhita International Conference
  6. The History of the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya
  7. An Overview of the Current Nālandā University
  8. Nālandā in Ancient and Buddhist Literature
  9. The Golden Age of Nālandā University
  10. The Buddha’s Message on Education
  11. An Introduction to Buddhism in Asia and Europe During the 20th Century
  12. Reflections on Global Peace
  13. The Pure Lotus
  1. Meditations on the Day of the Buddha’s Enlightenment
  2. The Celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment and Symposium in Bodh Gaya
  3. The Seventh Sakyadhita International Conference
 
  clip_image045.gif

 6.1. THE MAITREYA BUDDHA STATUE CONSTRUCTION PROJECT

 IN BODH GAYA, INDIA

During the final days of 1999, visitors to Bodh Gaya would have noticed two prominent events:

  • The ten-day Dharma teaching program (December 20, 1999, to December 29, 1999) by His Holiness the Dalai
  • The fundraising campaign for The Maitreya Project, a project to build the world’s largest statue of Maitreya Buddha in Bodh Gaya.

In this article, I would like to introduce the second event. Bodh Gaya, often known as Buddhagaya, is situated to the west along the banks of the Niranjana River in the town of Gaya, Bihar state. Bodh Gaya is the most important and sacred site in Buddhist history; not only does it mark where Shravaka Gautama meditated for 49 days and became the Buddha named Shakyamuni, but it also marks where countless Buddhas of the past attained enlightenment and where, in the future, Maitreya Buddha will practice and attain Buddhahood.

Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit word Maitri, meaning boundless loving-kindness (Universal Love). Maitreya Buddha is the Future Buddha, the next Buddha following Shakyamuni Buddha to be born into this world. He will use his infinite

loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity to turn the wheel of Dharma and guide sentient beings on the path to escape suffering.

Mahayana Buddhism teaches that after many thousands of years, once the eras of the Right Dharma and the Formal Dharma have passed and the era of the Dharma-Ending Age arrives, humanity will no longer know the Buddha, Dharma, or Sangha. People will lose sight of wisdom, morality, and ethics. Dark ignorance will reign; life will consist only of indulging in sensual pleasures and committing sins. As a result, merit will diminish, and human lifespans will shorten to only about ten years. Furthermore, human bodies will become ugly, deformed, and malodorous, and life will be characterized by poverty, scarcity, and suffering.

As thousands of years pass, humans will begin to practice virtue and cultivate merit again, causing the lifespan to increase to 80,000 years. Then, time will pass again, and as people cease to practice, it will decrease back to ten years… it is at that time that Maitreya Buddha will appear in the world to turn the wheel of Dharma and show sentient beings the way to free themselves from the shackles of suffering. He will use his infinite loving- kindness to aid all beings and bring peace and happiness to every suffering soul. Therefore, Maitreya Buddha is the future savior of humanity.

1.1.  THE ORGANIZATION AND VISION

The construction of this world-record-breaking statue is undertaken by The Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition (FPMT). This is an international Mahayana Buddhist organization that has established over 112 projects, including monasteries, retreat centers, meditation centers, hospices, hospitals, and schools across 24 countries.

In 1974, the famous Tibetan Lama, Lama Thubten Yeshe, founded the FPMT with the intention of preserving and

spreading the supreme wisdom of Buddhism to all people. This Lama often said that Bodh Gaya is “the root” from which all the Buddha’s teachings originated. To specifically express gratitude for the kindness of India, where this root exists, he dreamed of building a statue of Maitreya Buddha in Bodh Gaya, where past, present, and future Buddhas attain enlightenment.

Unfortunately, before his wish was fulfilled, Lama Yeshe passed away in 1984. His disciple, Lama Zopa Rinpoche, became his successor as the leader of FPMT and vowed to realize his teacher’s dream. In 1987, a Spanish boy was recognized by the 14th Dalai Lama as the reincarnation of Lama Yeshe. This boy was ordained in the Tibetan tradition and is known as Lama Osel Rinpoche. He is currently studying at Sera Monastery in South India.

1.2.  UNPRECEDENTED SCALE

Currently, at the Daijokyo-Japan temple in Bodh Gaya, there is an outdoor meditating Buddha statue built in 1989 that stands nearly 26 meters (80 feet) tall. In the US, the Statue of Liberty stands 48 meters tall. In Tokyo, Japan, the Ushiku Daibutsu Buddha stands 80 meters tall. Compared to a human height of

1.6 meters, these statues are already massive! However, no one could imagine that the bronze Maitreya Buddha statue project in Bodh Gaya is planned to be 152.4 meters (500 feet) tall.

Furthermore, we should not assume that Maitreya Buddha must always be depicted as the “Laughing Buddha” with a round head and a large belly (often resembling the Earth God). Instead of holding a fan, that popular depiction often holds prayer beads or carries a sack of food, sometimes with six mischievous children (representing the “six thieves” or senses) climbing over him. While that is the common image of Maitreya in Vietnam, the statue to be built in Bodh Gaya will be based on art styles from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, when Indian artistic models were highly prevalent.

This style of Maitreya statue is also found in neighboring countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, China, and Korea. Traditionally, many Tibetan monasteries worship large statues of this type; for example, Tashilhunpo Monastery has a Maitreya statue 26 meters (80 feet) tall. In Nepal, the famous Rinpoche Chogye Trichen built a Maitreya statue about three stories high at his monastery.

The 152.4-meter statue in Bodh Gaya will be cast in golden bronze, using a blend of modern and traditional art. With its extreme height and supreme aesthetic quality, the FPMT hopes this masterpiece will join the list of wonders of the world as the tallest Buddha statue on Earth.

1.3.  THE MAITREYA PROJECT LAND

The statue, equivalent to a 50-story building, will be situated in a 45-acre park (one acre = 4,046 square meters). The Maitreya Project Land is located about 3 kilometers from the Mahabodhi Temple.

Beyond the great bronze statue, the FPMT intends to build millions of other smaller works within the hollow body of the bronze Buddha, in the grand halls, and around the park. The goal is for this site to become a “Maitreya Mandala,” a Long Hoa Assembly, an ideal center for practice and pilgrimage.

The Main Hall will be as tall as a 17-story temple, capable of holding over 4,000 people, with hundreds of thousands of statues and paintings set into the corners or carved into the walls. It will feature:

  • Statues of Shakyamuni and Maitreya are nearly 5 meters (50 feet) tall.
  • A massive silk thangka of Maitreya
  • 100,000 small statues of Maitreya and
  • Paintings or statues of 1,000
  • Artistic depictions   of    the    path    to    Bodhicitta    and
  • Silk thangkas of the lives of Lama Tsongkhapa and the
  • Statues of the “Eight Great Indian Panditas” and the names of 100,000 Buddhas are engraved on wall

Inside the 152.4-meter bronze statue, relics of Shakyamuni Buddha, great saints, and masters will be enshrined. It will house the Thousand-Armed Chenrezig, 21 Taras, Medicine Buddhas, 16 Arhats, 35 Buddhas, and Lama Thubten Yeshe. It will also contain Prajnaparamita Sūtras written in gold, silver, pearl, and agate, as well as protective deities such as Mitukpa, Kunrig, Vajrasattva, Namgyalma, Amitayus, White Tara, and the Eight Bodhisattvas.

The 45-acre park will also feature:

  • 100,000
  • Meditation rooms decorated with statues and Jataka tales (birth stories of the Buddha).
  • A monastery for monks and another for nuns.
  • A hospital combining Western, Ayurvedic, and Tibetan
  • A school and a conference/teaching
  • A guest house for pilgrims.
  • A nature park for children with animals and brooks.

1.4.  ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACT

According to Mr. Peter Kedge, who is directly in charge of the architectural and artistic aspects, the project’s cost will exceed

150 million US dollars, with a construction time of about 5 to 6 years. They aim to complete it by December 2004 or January 2005. The statue is designed to last at least 1,000 years.

The immediate benefit is for the people of India, especially those in Bodh Gaya. Located in the state of Bihar, Bodh Gaya is an arid land where people face poverty, and housing is sparse, with no major factories or workshops. Once completed, this statue will be a major tourist attraction. Tourism revenue will bring prosperity and a more stable spiritual life to the local residents.

Even during construction, the project provides jobs for thousands of Indian workers, including architects, engineers, financial experts, and gardeners. It is a major opportunity for the construction material industries in or near Bihar.

1.5.  ENDORSEMENT FROM THE LEADERSHIP

In March 1996, at the foundation stone-laying ceremony, the President of India, Shri K. R. Narayanan, stated:

“I am very pleased to learn that a bronze Maitreya Buddha statue will be built in Bodh Gaya. The prosperity of Buddhism is a testament to the values of Loving-kindness, Compassion, Joy, Equanimity, Selflessness, and Altruism. This Maitreya Project combines the spiritual and practical needs of Buddhists far and wide... I believe this project contributes to spreading the values of Peace and Equality among humanity.”

The FPMT also hopes that all visitors, regardless of whether they are clergy or laypeople, Buddhist or non-Buddhist, will experience a growth in Bodhicitta (the mind of enlightenment) after viewing the statue. The image of the Four Immeasurables (Loving-kindness, Compassion, Joy, Equanimity) is meant to soothe afflictions like greed, anger, ignorance, pride, and jealousy.

1.6.A CALL TO CONTRIBUTION

Regarding the merit of building statues and stupas, the Buddha once told King Sagya that for every atom of sand in a Buddha statue, the builder and donor would be reborn as a king of gods or humans that many times. For every grain of sand in a stupa or temple, that person would achieve meditative absorption and experience supreme peace in concentration, liberated from birth, old age, sickness, and death.

As the Vietnamese proverb says, “One tree cannot make a mountain, but three trees together can make a high hill.” To create deep merit in the Buddha Dharma, the FPMT and all Buddhists are encouraged to contribute according to their ability.

The project is currently under construction with the fervent hope of the FPMT to complete it before 2005. The 14th Dalai Lama (who gave ten days of teachings at the Kalachakra Hall in Bodh Gaya in December 1999) prayed for the project’s success, stating:

“This work is the result of our mental power and our vows… I sincerely appreciate the merit of the donors, the organizers, and everyone implementing this project.” (Bodh Gaya, January 1998)

With the same spirit, I sincerely pray for the successful completion of this project. While the required funding is vast, I believe that for noble causes done for the sake of others, the miraculous power of the Buddha and the inconceivable laws of the universe will inspire monks, nuns, and laypeople to unite their efforts.

The project awaits your contribution. May the inauguration of the Maitreya Project in Bodh Gaya be realized soon.

Namo Maitreya Buddha.

 

Written at the Mahabodhi Mahavihar Library, Bodh Gaya, India.

The final night (December 31) of the year 1999.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Reference:

  • The Maitreya Project, FPMT,

6.2. TEN DAYS OF DHARMA TEACHINGS BY HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA

IN BODH GAYA

Bodh Gaya is the place where, over twenty centuries ago, Shravaka Gautama meditated beneath the leafy Bodhi tree beside the cool, emerald waters of the Niranjana River. Seated upon a handful of Kusa grass offered by a shepherd, he attained Great Enlightenment in the final watch of the 49th night, becoming Shakyamuni Buddha. From that moment, this site became the most sacred center of pilgrimage for Buddhists from India and across the entire world.

On major festivals like Vesak or the Day of Enlightenment, the grounds are a vibrant mosaic of robes: the deep maroon of Tibetan monastics, the dark saffron of Indian and Burmese monks, the bright yellow of Vietnamese and Western sanghas, the vivid orange of Sri Lankans and Thais, and the black of Taiwanese and Japanese traditions.

However, during these ten days (December 20–29, 1999), Bodh Gaya was transformed into a pure land of the Tibetan tradition due to the presence of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama. With over 5,000 Tibetan monastics in deep maroon robes gathering

for his teachings, the town felt like a mythical scene from the Himalayas.

The Atmosphere of the Gathering

The path leading to the Mahabodhi Temple and the Kalachakra Maidan (the teaching ground) was filled with monks, nuns, and Western practitioners in Tibetan robes. Their faces were serene and peaceful. Among them were many young novices, aged 7 to 15, radiant and nimble in their robes of liberation.

Joining these monastics were over 2,000 lay Buddhists from Western Europe (USA, Sweden, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium) and South Asia (Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam).

To accommodate this massive influx, temporary Tibetan markets sprang up along the roadsides, selling everything from winter clothing and footwear to video tapes, Sūtras, Buddha statues, and Tibetan-style postcards. Nomadic-style tents were converted into “restaurants” serving delicious, affordable Tibetan food, while other tents served as “guest houses” for the poorer Tibetan pilgrims. Standing on the hill looking down, one would forget this was a typical Indian town; for these ten days, it was a sovereign land of Tibetan Buddhist life.

2.1.  THE ESSENCE OF THE TEACHINGS

His Holiness focused his lectures on two profound texts:

Shiksa Samuccaya (Compendium of Training) by Shantideva.

Bodhisattvacharyavatara (The Way of the Bodhisattva) by Shantideva.

Our group (Venerables GN, TD, BC, DV, and me) attended two sessions daily: from 9:00 to 11:00 AM and 1:30 to 4:30 PM. His words felt like a powerful transmission of enlightened wisdom pouring into our hearts:

“...We are beings living in this world of five turbidities; we must liberate ourselves from the shackles of suffering and become free, happy individuals. We must transform ourselves from a life of ignorance and affliction to the peak of enlightenment... To do this, we must practice the Bodhisattva Path, immerse ourselves in saving others, and guide them out of the cycle of delusion. Resolve to end all causes of suffering for all beings. Vow to attain Buddhahood so that all beings may reach the ultimate peak of liberation.”

His Holiness spoke with strength and immense love. Between sections, he would look at the assembly and smile with a natural, fatherly warmth. Every session began with the thunderous, resonant sound of thousands of voices chanting in unison, accompanied by drums and bells. The deep, guttural “hừ... hừ...” chants of the Lamas in yellow crested hats felt like the primordial echoes of a mountain forest awakening.

2.2.  THE SACRED RITUALS

The sessions included the chanting of the Heart Sūtra, the Sūtra for Removing Obstacles, and prayers for the long life of His Holiness. Monks carried incense burners through the hall, the fragrant smoke rising as an offering. We also listened to the peaceful Pali chants of the Indian and Thai sanghas and the melodious, flute-like chanting of the Taiwanese monastics. During breaks, tea, bread, and small monetary offerings (Rupees) were distributed to the monastics, funded by the generosity of lay donors.

2.3.  SECURITY AND ORGANIZATION

Security was exceptionally tight. Attendees were not allowed to bring bags, electronics, cameras, or binoculars (except for licensed journalists). We were permitted only FM radios to listen to the simultaneous translations in English, Chinese, and Hindi. Before entering the Kalachakra Hall, everyone underwent a

rigorous search by the police.

The Maitreya Project sponsored the program, supported by over 150 staff and volunteers from across the globe. Donations were collected for several causes: the teachings, meals for the Sangha, the construction of the world’s tallest Maitreya statue, and the building of a hospital and school. The total cost for the 10-day event was estimated between $140,000 and $150,000 USD.

2.4.   WHISPERS OF COMPASSION

Along the fences of the Kalachakra Hall, seven banners featured verses from Shantideva and His Holiness in four languages. Some of the most moving included:

“May I be the doctor and the medicine, and may I be the nurse for all sick beings in the world until everyone is healed.”

“For as long as space endures and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world.”

“My religion is kindness.”

These words acted as a catalyst, reviving the Bodhicitta (the mind of enlightenment) in all of us.

2.5.A NIGHT OF REFLECTION

On the night of December 28, 1999, the wind died down, and the trees stood still. Thousands of candles flickered around the Great Stupa and the Kalachakra Hall. The eyes of the pilgrims reflected the candlelight; some filled with the sadness of saying goodbye to these ten days of wisdom.

The next day, His Holiness would depart for Varanasi to pray for the new millennium at the Sārnāth Stupa (the Deer Park), where he would read a Declaration of Peace on January 1, 2000.

Our group stayed in Bodh Gaya to attend the New Year’s Day ceremony at the Vietnam Buddha Quoc Tu (Viet Nam Phật Quốc Tự Temple of Master Huyen Dieu), which included the inauguration of a Peace Bell and a 10,000-candle offering at the Mahabodhi Stupa to pray for world peace.

As the night grew late and the fog thickened, I walked back toward the Vietnamese temple. The Tibetan market was still bustling with monks and locals, the air filled with the sounds of laughter and Tibetan music. Tomorrow, when the Dalai Lama leaves, this market and this unique world will vanish, returning Bodh Gaya to its quiet stillness.

But in truth, it remains. The image of the Dalai Lama and the strength of Tibetan Buddhism have contributed immensely to the revival of Buddhism in India, a faith that has survived destruction and upheaval to once again stand firm in Indian society.

I stopped to help two young novices, about 10 years old, who were playing with a ball. When I asked if they were going to Varanasi tomorrow, they beamed and said, “Yes!”

As I walked away, a sense of immense gratitude welled up in me. I whispered to myself in Vietnamese: “Thank you, Your Holiness. Thank you, Tibetan Buddhism. And thank you, little monks.”

Written at Vietnam Phật Quốc Tự Temple, 11:00 PM, December 28, 1999.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.3.HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA AND THE EARLY DAYS

OF THE MILLENNIUM YEAR 2000 IN SĀRNĀTH (DEER PARK)

As the Spring of 2000 approached, the first spring of the 21st century, people across the planet eagerly awaited the momentous turning of the new millennium. For those with religious faith, hearts turned toward their spiritual leaders in prayer. In India, thousands of monks, nuns, and lay Buddhists from Tibet, India, and abroad followed His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, the world-renowned leader of Tibetan Buddhism and 1989 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, to join him in prayer and receive his Dharma teachings during these significant moments of the century.

Let us trace the footsteps of His Holiness, his Sangha, and his disciples during these historic days:

December 14, 1999

His Holiness and the Tibetan Sangha traveled from the Dharamsala highlands to Sārnāth (Deer Park), where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of Dharma. Located near the city of Varanasi in the state of Uttar Pradesh, His Holiness resided at the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies (CIHTS) in Sārnāth.

December 15, 1999

  • From 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM: The inauguration ceremony of the Vajra Vidya Institute took place at the Tibetan temple in Kajuhi village, Sārnāth. Distinguished attendees included:
  • Professor Rinpoche (Vice-Chancellor of the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sārnāth).
  • Venerable Sirisumedha (Abbot of the Mahabodhi Society, Mulagandha Kuty Vihara, Sārnāth, and Joint

Secretary of the International Mahabodhi Society).

  • Numerous Tibetan Rinpoches and hundreds of Buddhists from Tibet, the West, and India.

December 17, 1999

  • 4:45 PM: His Holiness delivered a Dharma talk calling for world peace and the benefit of all humanity, urging everyone to live in solidarity and harmony according to the Buddha’s
  • 5:55 PM: At the Mahabodhi temple, 2,000 white candles were lit beneath the Bodhi tree to inaugurate 28 glass- encased Buddha statues built around its base. According to the Mahabodhi Society, this tree was grown from a sapling of the original Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, which King Ashoka’s son had brought to Sri Lanka. Under this sacred tree, His Holiness preached for 40 minutes in both English and Tibetan, praying for the prosperity of the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) to remain a guiding torch for all Dr. B. K. Modi, Vice President of the International Mahabodhi Society, introduced the history of the Sārnāth Bodhi tree and expressed profound gratitude to His Holiness for his presence.

December 18 – 29, 1999

On the morning of the 18th, His Holiness and the Sangha departed Sārnāth for Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s 49 days of meditation and enlightenment. From December 20 to 29, he conducted a ten-day teaching program on:

  1. Shikshasamuccaya (Compendium of Training) by
  2. Bodhicharyavatara (The Way of the Bodhisattva) by

December 30, 1999

His Holiness returned to Varanasi. At 5:00 PM, a solemn ceremony to bid farewell to the old year and welcome the year 2000 was held at the Ganges River (Ganga), organized by the Mahabodhi Society and Hindu organizations. Attendees included:

•         His Holiness the Dalai Lama.

  • B. K. Modi (Vice President of the International Mahabodhi Society).
  • Ashok Singhal (President of the Vishva Hindu Parishad, Delhi).
  • Venerable Rewatha (General Secretary of the International Mahabodhi Society).
  • Venerable K. Sirisumedha and Professor S. Rinpoche. Over 5,000 monks, nuns, and Buddhists from local and international communities gathered to hear His Holiness pray for world

January 1, 2000

On this historic first day of the third millennium:

8:30 AM: At the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sārnāth, His Holiness delivered a televised New Year 2000 and New Millennium address to the world.

9:30 AM: The India Tourism Development Corporation organized a grand Peace Conference at the Mahabodhi Society temple in Sārnāth.

11:30 AM – 12:30 PM: A meditation session was held at the Mulagandha Kuty Vihara to pray for world peace and the well- being of all people. This interfaith gathering included supreme leaders from Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Tibet, India), Hinduism

 

(representing 80% of India’s population), Islam, Christianity, Jainism, and the Bahá’í Faith.

January 2, 2000

His Holiness and the Tibetan Sangha bid farewell to Sārnāth and the sacred Ganges to travel to the capital, Delhi, where his message of peace for humanity was eagerly awaited.

Such were the meaningful journeys of His Holiness and the Tibetan Sangha during the historic dawn of the year 2000.

10:00 AM at Sārnāth, January 03, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

6..4. CHALLENGES

IN INTER-RELIGIOUS PARTNERSHIPS

In an era deeply disturbed by moral crises and social division, the need for us to understand our common humanity is essential to achieving lasting peace and tranquility. Such understanding regarding human existence and behavior is often provided by religion. Through the cultivation of a spiritual and humanitarian nature, religion has ennobled the lives of people everywhere, creating bonds and a unity of purpose within and across societies.

In a practical sense, religion provides the soil and the structural framework for spreading faith and ethics, uniting individuals into communities and giving meaningful direction to both collective and individual lives. The freedom to practice religion and belief is crucial, not only to satisfy the spiritual need for transcendence but also for building a harmonious and just way of life.

4.1.  THE CURRENT MISPERCEPTION OF RELIGION

Today, many people fail to grasp this sincere perspective.

To them, religion is seen merely as an ancient heirloom, a tradition passed down that has become cluttered with dogma and superstition. Many find it hard to believe in, viewing it as something best left to the elderly or to those with idle time. Consequently, many positive qualities of religious culture have been reduced to cumbersome rituals and blind faith, affecting everyone from the illiterate to the intellectual elite in every country.

What are the causes that make religion suspicious in modern society? Do religious traditions promote or hinder community? Do they act as forces for unity or division? Some argue it is futile to expect religion to provide the resources needed to face the challenges of the 21st century. Religions often appear to offer authoritarian perceptions and fail to emphasize social interdependence. Furthermore, at a time when the world desperately needs peacemakers, some traditions are seeing a rise in fundamentalism, extremism, and intolerance. This is exacerbated by the “politicization of religion and the religionization of policy,” which raises fears about the role of religion in public life.

4.2.  THE FIRST CHALLENGE: EXCLUSIVE CLAIMS TO TRUTH

The primary challenge facing religious followers in the new century is the claim of exclusive ownership of the truth, clinging to narrow interpretations of their own teachings. This stubborn refusal to appreciate and accept other beliefs can only lead to bitter opposition and useless division.

The Inter-religious Dialogue titled “Towards a Global Ethic,” held in Chicago in 1993 to commemorate the centenary of the first Parliament of the World’s Religions (1893), was established by spiritual leaders in response to the world’s spiritual shifts. This was followed by conferences in Cape Town (1999) and the Millennium World Peace Summit in New York in August

  1. These gatherings proved that the world’s religions are finding common ground to work in harmony, declaring:

“We affirm that a common set of core spiritual values found in all scriptures forms an ethical foundation... Ancient guidelines for human behavior already exist within the world’s religions, and these are conditions for a harmonious world order.”

4.3.  THE “GOLDEN RULE” AS A BRIDGE

Ethics, such as the “Golden Rule,” are a vital part of humanity’s spiritual heritage. Taught in one form or another in all world religions, this rule serves as an excellent starting point for building bridges across religious walls. We must move beyond a focus on social customs to emphasize spiritual, moral energy, and a dedication to applying truth in every field of human endeavor. Recognizing “unity in diversity” implies the development of a global consciousness and a sense of world citizenship.

4.4.    INTEGRATING RELIGION AND SCIENCE

If religious leaders are to face these challenges, they must acknowledge that religion and science are two essential systems of knowledge for the development of consciousness. The insights and skills generated by scientific progress must always be accompanied by spiritual and moral guidance to ensure their proper application. Educators must move away from aggressive individualism and instead nurture ideas of service and love.

4.5.             EIGHT      GLOBAL      SHIFTS      AND      SOCIAL CHALLENGES

The disintegration of the old world order and the emergence of a new social order based on “unity in diversity” are accompanied by several critical trends:

Breakdown of traditional structures: The collapse of family and social structures, alongside the rise of substance abuse, unemployment, violence, and divorce.

Economic transformation: The shift from agriculture and industry to a global economy dependent on advanced technology.

Urbanization: The world shifting from rural to urban living.

Environmental destruction: The degradation of the natural environment.

Increased diversity: A dramatic increase in ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity within communities due to migration and war.

Rising hatred: An increase in inter-ethnic animosity and an apparent inability to resolve international conflicts.

Mass media influence: In the US, for example, a high school graduate will have spent 15,000 hours in the classroom but 18,000 hours watching television, often filled with violence and depravity.

Knowledge explosion: Exponential growth in technology leading to moral dilemmas in medicine, law, and politics.

4.6.    CONCLUSION: A CALL TO ACTION

While society is transforming rapidly, global education has yet to see significant change. This is the great challenge inter- religious partnerships must overcome.

If we are to be active participants in building a global civilization, we cannot remain passive. With global vision, spiritual realization, and a sense of purpose, we can fulfill the mission: “Dedicated to service, for the well-being of all.”

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Towards a Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor: Singh,

7–10 December 2003, New Delhi.

  • Unity in Diversity (Thoughts of the World’s Great Religions),

O.P. Ghai, Foreword by Dr. Karan Singh, Sterling Publishers PVT. LTD, New Delhi-3.

6.5. THE SIXTH SAKYADHITA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE IN NEPAL

“Sakyadhita,” meaning “Daughters of the Buddha,” is the name of the International Association of Buddhist Women. It brings together Buddhist women from over twenty countries across Asia, Europe, and the Americas, including both monastics and lay practitioners, to practice the Buddha’s teachings for the liberation of themselves and others. The association’s core objectives are:

  1. To create a communication network among Buddhist women
  2. To foster harmony among different Buddhist
  3. To train monastics and educated laywomen in spreading the
  4. To advocate for and facilitate the transmission of higher ordination for nuns.
  5. To research scriptures and issues concerning women in the Vinaya (monastic law).
  6. To apply Buddhist teachings for the sake of world

The International Association of Buddhist Women was founded in Bodh Gaya, India, in February 1987. The founding leadership included Mrs. Ranjani de Silva (Sri Lanka) as President, Koko Kawanami (Japan) as Vice President, Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo (USA, Tibetan tradition) as Secretary, and Mrs. Gabriela

Kuestermann (Germany) as Treasurer.

Subsequent conferences were held in Bangkok (1991), Colombo (1993), Ladakh (1995), and Phnom Penh (1997). With nearly 130 million members, including over 60,000 senior and junior nuns, Sakyadhita represents a powerful force of Buddhist women dedicated to protecting our world through spiritual, social, and economic efforts.

5.1.  THE SIXTH CONFERENCE IN LUMBINI, NEPAL

The Sixth Sakyadhita Conference took place from February 1 to February 7, 2000, in Lumbini, Nepal, the birthplace of the Buddha. The theme was “Women as Peacemakers: For Themselves, Their Families, Their Societies, and the World.”

 

 
  clip_image124.jpg

 

Global Sisterhood in Dharma: The 6th Sakyadhita Conference, Nepal. February 07, 2000. Ven. Karma Lekshe Tsomo, founder of Sakyadhita (fourth from right), Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (far left) with international delegates.

 

Over 200 members, including senior nuns and laypeople from

countries such asAustralia, the USA, Germany, Canada, Vietnam, and many others, gathered at the International Gautami Nuns Temple. Our group, consisting of eight Vietnamese nun- students and one laywoman studying in India, joined this joyful assembly at the dawn of the new millennium.

5.2.  CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS

The daily schedule was rigorous and spiritual, beginning with meditation at 7:00 AM and concluding with cultural exchanges and chanting in the evenings. English served as the primary language, with translations into Tibetan for the large local contingent.

The presentations covered a wide range of topics:

  • Venerable Thuan Dinh presented on the role of Vietnamese women and monastics in the modern era.
  • Elise A. Devido spoke about the Buddhist nuns of Taiwan, noting that they now outnumber monks three-to-one and lead the world in social service, education, and Dharma
  • Trina Nahm-Mijo from Hawaii proposed “10 Precepts of Compassion” for the new millennium, addressing issues like family happiness, literacy, drug abuse, and environmental protection.
  • Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo discussed the intersections of family, monastery, and

A particularly joyful moment occurred during an art session where attendees were asked to draw their visions. Some drew Sakyadhita members holding hands in a circle around the globe; others painted peaceful thatched huts on pine hills or hearts linked together as an offering to the Buddhas.

5.3.  PROPOSALS FOR THE FUTURE

Before the closing ceremony, participants shared their “swallows of thought,” suggestions for the association’s growth. Key proposals included:

Utilizing the internet and multilingual publications to reach more women in Asia.

Establishing health centers, schools, and self-sufficient agricultural projects.

Advocating for a unified global nunnery and increasing support for laywomen (upasikas).

A “Vietnamese Swallow”: One of our members proposed that the 7th Conference be held in Vietnam, which was met with joyful laughter and applause.

5.4.  PILGRIMAGE AND REFLECTIONS

Following the conference, the group visited sacred sites, including:

Lumbini and Kapilavastu (the Buddha’s childhood home).

Swayambhu Temple in Kathmandu: We arrived during the spring festival of Basanta Panchami, watching thousands of students write their names on the stupa walls to pray for success in their studies.

Boudhanath Stupa: Where the compassionate eyes of the Buddha look out toward the snow-capped Himalayas.

Namo Buddha: We braved treacherous mountain roads to reach the site where, in a past life, the Bodhisattva sacrificed his body to feed a starving tigress.

As we bid farewell on the evening of February 12, 2000, there was a bittersweet sense of parting. Like birds returning to our respective missions, we carried with us the memories of two

weeks spent practicing and learning together. We pressed our hands together in the shape of lotus buds, wishing for our paths to cross again.

How meaningful it was to welcome the first spring of the year 2000 at the birthplace of the Buddha, as “Women bringing Peace to themselves, their families, their societies, and the world.”

Delhi, February 23, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.6. HISTORY OF THE BODHI TREE AT BODH GAYA

Buddhism is the world’s oldest historical religion. Christianity emerged 600 years after Buddhism, and Islam followed 1,200 years later. In India, Buddhism flourished for 1,500 years before facing centuries of decline and destruction. Sacred sites like Bodh Gaya, Sārnāth, and Vulture Peak were reduced to ruins. For centuries, the holy sites were forgotten by history until their recovery began in the late 19th century. On the occasion of the Enlightenment Day (Buddhist Era 2544), I wish to introduce the history of the Bodhi tree, the silent witness to the Buddha’s realization.

6.1.  THE SACRED NATURE OF THE TREE

The Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa) was known as the Asvatthi or Pipal. In the context of the Buddha, it is the “Tree of Enlightenment.” Long before Buddhism, ancient Indians held a deep reverence for giant trees, believing them to be the abodes of spirits and deities.109

This concept of tree worship reached its zenith with the Bodhi

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Pategama Gnanagama, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, p. 45; Dharmadoot, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Sarnath-2000.

tree at Bodh Gaya. Its significance lies in the fact that the Buddha spent the entire week after his enlightenment gazing at the tree with unblinking eyes (Animisa-locana) in a gesture of profound gratitude for the shelter it provided him during his 49-day struggle.110

During the period when Buddhism emerged in India, the belief that these trees served as dwellings for deities and spirits became even more deeply ingrained. Buddhist scriptures, such as the Vimanavatthu (Stories of the Celestial Mansions)111 and the Petavatthu (Stories of the Hungry Ghosts)112, also recount numerous tales regarding the habitations of gods and ghosts within trees.

In the Mahā-Parinibbāna Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses), the Buddha declared to Ven. Ānanda, that Bodh Gaya, where the Bodhi tree stands, is one of the four holy sites that a person of faith should visit with devotion and reverence. He further added, “Those who pass away with a heart full of faith while on such a pilgrimage will be reborn in a realm of happiness.”113

6.2.  THE TREE THROUGH HISTORY

The Mauryan Era: King Ashoka and the First Branch

 
  clip_image047.gif


In the 3rd century BCE, King Ashoka, the great Buddhist emperor, protected the tree with deep devotion. His daughter,

  • Gnamarama Ven., Aspects of Early Buddhist Sociologist Thought, p. 163.
  • Vimanavatthu (Pali: Vimānavatthu); Vietnamese: Chuyện Thiên Cung or Thiên Cung Sự. This is one of the fifteen books of the Khuddaka Nikaya (Minor Collection/Tiểu Bộ Kinh), consisting of stories about beings reborn in the celestial realms.
  • Petavatthu (Pali): Stories of the Hungry Ghosts. Like the Vimanavatthu, this is one of the fifteen books of the Khuddaka Nikaya (Minor Collection). it consists of stories detailing the sufferings of beings reborn in the realm of the “hungry ghosts” (pretas) due to their past unwholesome actions, particularly stinginess and attachment.
  • Digha Nikaya, II, Pali Text Society, 1886, p. 141.

Mahathera Narada, The Buddha and His Teaching, Colombo, 1973, p. 257- 258.

the nun Sanghamitta, took a sapling from the southern branch of the original tree and transported it to Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. While the mother tree in Bodh Gaya was destroyed multiple times over the centuries, the branch in Sri Lanka survived. Today, that tree, the Sri Maha Bodhi, is recognized as the oldest historically documented tree in the world.

6.3.   DESTRUCTION AND MIRACULOUS REBIRTH

Throughout history, the Bodhi tree faced numerous attempts at destruction:

  • Queen Tishyarakshita: Jealous of Ashoka’s devotion to the tree, his queen reportedly had the tree cut Ashoka managed to revive it by bathing the roots in scented milk.
  • King Sasanka: An anti-Buddhist ruler in the 7th century CE, he cut the tree to the ground and attempted to burn the roots with sugarcane juice. However, King Purnavarman, a descendant of Ashoka, revived it once more, building a 24- foot wall to protect it.

6.4.   RECORDS OF CHINESE PILGRIMS

The accounts of Chinese monks provide a window into the tree’s past:

  • Faxian (400 CE): Described the stupas and the lush environment surrounding the Pei-to (Bodhi)
  • Xuanzang (629 CE): Reported that the tree was surrounded by a solid brick wall. He noted that while the tree was often hacked or burnt by hostile kings, it miraculously bloomed He described its leaves as remaining lustrous and green throughout the seasons, only falling on the Buddha’s Parinirvana day.

6.5.  THE MODERN RECOVERY

By the late 19th century, the holy site had fallen into total

disrepair. Alexander Cunningham, the British archaeologist, visited in 1862 and found the tree aging and decaying. In 1876, a severe storm blew down the remains of the old tree.

Fortunately, seeds and saplings from the old tree were recovered. The current tree growing behind the Mahabodhi Temple is a direct descendant. Additionally, in 1891, Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala (founder of the Maha Bodhi Society) began the long process of reclaiming Bodh Gaya for the Buddhist world.

In 1931, three saplings taken from the Sri Maha Bodhi in Sri Lanka (the original 3rd-century BCE branch) were brought back to India and planted at Sārnāth, completing a spiritual circle from Bodh Gaya to Sri Lanka and back to the site of the First Sermon.

The Maha Bodhi journal (Bodh Gaya, July 1903)114 states: “The original Bodhi Tree under which the Blessed Buddha

(Bhagawan) meditated no longer exists. It was destroyed in 1874 (BE 2418). A sapling from this original tree had been brought by Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, daughter of Emperor Ashoka, and planted in the capital of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. When the parent tree was destroyed in 1874, a new sapling grew from the site; that is the lush Bodhi Tree currently at Bodh Gaya today, thriving with dense green foliage.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


When Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala (founder of the Maha Bodhi Society in India and worldwide) first visited Bodh Gaya in 1891. He was overwhelmed with joy and emotion by the sacredness associated with the Buddha’s life and enlightenment. However, he was deeply pained to see the site’s state of decay. Sitting beside the Vajrasana (Diamond Throne) under the Bodhi Tree, he vowed to restore the landmarks of the birthplace of Buddhism. He was one of the first major figures to play a pivotal role in reviving Buddhism in Bodh Gaya and India during the

  • The Maha Bodhi 1891-1991, Centenary volumn, The Maha Bođhi Society of India, p. 30.

19th and 20th centuries. Building on his foundation, the Maha Bodhi Society has since expanded globally.

On November 11, 1931, the Mulagandhakuti Vihara in Sarnath, built by the Venerable, was inaugurated. Lord Willingdon, the Viceroy of India, and the Director of the Archaeological Survey of India agreed to enshrine the Buddha’s relics at this temple. Additionally, three saplings taken from the Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, were brought back and planted at the Mulagandhakuti Vihara. These three saplings, like children of the same mother tree in Sri Lanka, whose ancestral roots trace back to Bodh Gaya, grew together within a protective enclosure. After more than 50 years, these three trees now share a single concrete base and have grown to look like three branches of a single tree, becoming a sacred site of worship for Buddhists.

Thus, from the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya during the Buddha’s time, a cutting was taken to be planted at the gate of Jetavana Monastery in Sravasti. Then, around the 3rd century BCE, a southern branch of the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya was brought to Sri Lanka. Finally, in the 20th century, three saplings from Sri Lanka were returned to India and planted at Sarnath (Deer Park), the place where the Buddha first turned the Wheel of Dharma, delivering the message of liberation to the five ascetics and all of humanity.

The Bodhi tree planted in the city of Anuradhapura is historically recognized as the oldest living human-planted tree in the world.115

6.6.  THE PRESENT DAY

 
  clip_image047.gif


The current Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya is over 100 years old, healthy, and lush. It is protected by two square stone walls and draped with yellow silk at its base. Pilgrims from all nations gather here to chant, meditate, and offer water and flowers to

  • Symbol and Ritual in Religion with special Reference to Buddhism in Srilanka, D. Jayasekara; The Maha Bodhi Journal, Calcata, 9/1992, p.54.

the Vajrasana (the Diamond Throne), the exact spot where the Buddha sat.

As the historian Cunningham suggested, while the physical tree may have a limited lifespan, its lineage is continuous. Whether it is the 5th or the 20th generation, the tree remains the supreme symbol of the Buddha’s living wisdom.

Written at P.G. Women’s Hostel in Delhi, December 18, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Buddha Gaya Temple: Its History, Dipak Barua, 1981.
  • Informations at a Glance, Buddha Gaya Temple Management Committee, 1998.
  • Sambodhi, Maha Bodhi Society of India,
  • Buddhist Records of the Western World, Samuel Beal.
  • The Maha Bodhi Journal, The Maha Boddhi Society of India, Calcata, 9/1992.
  • Dharmadoot, The Maha Boddhi Society of India, Sarnath,

2000.

  • Xứ Phật Tình quê, tập I, Thích Hạnh Nguyện và Vô thức, Đại thừa, 1996.

6.7.  AN OVERVIEW

OF THE CURRENT NĀLANDĀ UNIVERSITY

Nālandā, a Buddhist monastery and internationally renowned center of learning from the 2nd to the 12th century CE, was considered one of India’s premier higher education systems of the ancient and pre-medieval eras. Today, in the 20th and 21st centuries, Buddhism is undergoing a revival in India. Within this cycle of evolution, Nālandā is step-by-step re-establishing its prominence.

In 1951, following India’s independence from British rule and at the suggestion of the late Venerable Jagdish Kashyapa, the Bihar state government collaborated with the Central Ministry of Education to revive this academic tradition. They decided to establish the Nava Nālandā Mahavihara (The New Nālandā University), an institute for Pali and Buddhist research utilizing the most modern scientific methodologies. On November 20, 1951, the foundation stone was laid by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of the Republic of India. The inauguration followed on March 20, 1956. Venerable Jagdish Kashyapa served as its first director and founder.

7.1.  CAMPUS AND LOCATION

Nava Nālandā Mahavihara is located 95 kilometers southeast of Patna, Bihar. It sits across from the peaceful Indra Puskarani lake, roughly one kilometer from the ruins of the ancient Nālandā University. The land for the university was donated by a local Muslim landowner named Zamindar (Islampur).

The university consists of three adjacent campuses:

  • Silabhadra Arama Hostel: A two-story residence for male The upper floor houses 25 monks working on PhD dissertations, while the lower floor houses 25 Master’s students.
  • International Hostel: A single-story residence for approximately 40 monks pursuing Bachelor’s degrees or language It features a central hall where monastics take turns chanting daily. Currently, students hail from Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. (Female monastics and students currently reside in nearby temples, such as the Chinese or Burmese temples, due to the lack of a female dormitory).
  • Academic Building: A two-story structure housing the library, administrative offices, and classrooms capable of holding 50 students

7.2.  ACADEMIC GOALS AND VISION

In his book Nālandā University, Dr. Gopal Sharan Singh outlines the institution’s objectives:

  • Restoration: To develop Nālandā into a residential university modeled after its predecessor, emphasizing Pali and Buddhist Studies.
  • Linguistic Diversity: To teach and research using Tibetan, Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese, Mongolian, and other Asian
  • Modern Library: To maintain a library of Buddhist works in English and ancient languages, alongside modern thought for comparative study.
  • Collaboration: To partner with other universities in Bihar to enhance research and avoid academic duplication.
  • Global Exchange: To send scholars to Buddhist centers worldwide and invite renowned international professors for special
  • Translation and Publication: To edit, translate, and publish

Buddhist manuscripts from various ancient languages into modern ones.

7.3.  PROGRAMS AND STUDENTS

The university offers Master’s (M.A.), M.Phil, PhD, and D.Litt degrees in Buddhist Studies, History, Philosophy, and Pali. Additionally, it provides annual certificate courses in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Hindi, and Japanese.

Professor Dipak Kumar Barua listed graduates from the school’s inception until 1996,116 showing its wide reach:

Country

Number of Graduates

Thailand

140

Laos

67

Myanmar

27

Vietnam

23

Bangladesh

13

Sri Lanka

13

Cambodia

8

Japan

4

USA

2

Germany, Tibet, Nepal, Australia

1 each

Among these alumni are royalty and prominent figures, such as Prince Vongsalong of Laos and Prince Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim. Notably, several eminent Vietnamese monks were trained here, including the Most Venerable Thich Minh Chau, the Most Venerable Huyen Vi, and the Most Venerable Thien Chau.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • ava Nālandā Mahavihara, Annual Report 1997-1998, Bihar, 1998, 15-

16.

7.4.  FUTURE OUTLOOK

While the student population is modest compared to massive institutions like Delhi or Calcutta University, the quality remains high. Currently, around 200 students are enrolled, including four Vietnamese monastics completing their PhDs.

Everything begins with difficulty, but looking at the revival of Nālandā, with the maroon robes of student-monks, the dedication of brilliant professors, and the integration of modern scientific tools, it is clear that religion and science are converging. I believe that in the near future, Nālandā will reclaim its prestige as a “Great Forest” of learning for Buddhism and the world.

May the darkness of illiteracy and the veil of ignorance dissipate, allowing the light of Nālandā to shine across India and the human world.

A rainy morning in Delhi, August 04, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Source:

  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: A Sketch, Dr. Dipar Kumar Barua, Bihar, 1996.
  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: At a Glance, Nālandā,
  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: Annualà Report 1997 - 1998, Bihar,
  • Nava Nālandā Mahavihara: Prospectus, Nālandā,
  • Nālandā University, Gopalà Sharan Singh, Educationalà Development Institute, Nālandā.

 6.8. NĀLANDĀ IN ANCIENT AND BUDDHIST LITERATURE

If we turn back the heroic pages of Buddhist history from the centuries before the Common Era through the 12th century, we find Nālandā University standing as one of the most famous centers of learning. It was the residence of brilliant scholars such as Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmapala, Silabhadra, and Shantarakshita.

Valuable information about Nālandā is extracted from ancient literary works and Buddhist texts that have survived the ages. Furthermore, the travelogues of international pilgrims like Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing have been indispensable in reconstructing the image of a flourishing Nālandā.

8.1.     NĀLANDĀ IN JAIN LITERATURE

Jain scriptures, such as the KalpaSūtra by Bhadrabahu, refer to Nālandā as a suburb of Rajgir (Rajagriha). It is recorded that Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, spent 14 rainy season retreats (caturmasyas) here.

In works like the Sukratranga, Nālandā is described as a wealthy town even before the Common Era. It was also known as Badgaon, home to sixteen beautiful temples and hundreds of sacred images.

8.2.             NĀLANDĀ IN THE PALI CANON (Buddhist Literature)

Dr. C.S. Upasak notes that Pali literature is rich with references to Nālandā. It was frequently a stopping point for the Buddha and his 500 disciples as they traveled between Rajgir and other regions.

Pavarika’s Mango Grove: The Buddha often stayed in the mango grove belonging to the millionaire Pavarika

(Pavarikambavana).

The Blessed One stayed at Ambalatthika for as long as he deemed fit, then he addressed the Venerable Ananda: ‘Ananda, let us go to Nalanda.’ ‘As you say, Lord,’ the Venerable Ananda replied. Then the Blessed One, together with a large company of monks, proceeded to Nalanda. There, the Blessed One stayed at the Pavarika Mango Grove (Pavarika-ambavana).

During the Blessed One’s stay at the Pavarika Mango Grove in Nalanda, this formal discourse was delivered to the monks:

‘This is Virtue (Sila); this is Concentration (Samadhi); this is Wisdom (Panna). Concentration, when fortified by Virtue, brings great fruit and great benefit. Wisdom, when fortified by Concentration, brings great fruit and great benefit. The mind, when fortified by Wisdom, is fully liberated from the taints (asavas), namely, the taint of sensual desire, the taint of becoming, the taint of wrong views, and the taint of ignorance.’”117

Furthermore, in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (the 16th discourse of the Digha Nikaya), Nalanda is also mentioned. This sutra describes the final days of the Buddha and the testamentary teachings he gave before his passing (Parinirvana).

  • The Brahmajala Sutta: In the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), it is recorded that between Rajgir and Nālandā, the Buddha stayed at the royal park of Ambalatthika. It was here that he preached the Brahmajala Sutta, addressing 62 types of wrong views, and the Ambalatthika-Rahulovada Sutta to his son, 118
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • The Kevaddha Sutta: In Nālandā, a young householder
  • Digha Nikaya (The Long Discourses), Discourse No. 16. Translated by Most Venerable Thích Minh Châu. Published by Van Hanh University Press, Saigon, 1972, pages 80-81.
  • Samyutta Nikaya (The Connected Discourses), Volume IV. Translated by Most Venerable Thích Minh Châu, Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies, Ho Chi Minh City, 1993, page

named Kevaddha asked the Buddha to command a monk to perform miracles to inspire faith. The Buddha refused, emphasizing that “the miracle of instruction” (teaching morality, concentration, and wisdom) was far superior to psychic powers.119

  • Upali Sutta: In the Majjhima Nikaya (Middle Length Discourses),120 the Buddha engages in a famous debate at Nālandā with Upali, a prominent disciple of the Jain leader Nigantha Nataputta, leading to Upali’s conversion to

I have heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying near Nāḷandā in Pāvārika’s mango grove. Pāvārika means “blanket-weaver”. Places were often named for their primary economic activity. Probably there was a community of blanket weavers, and the park was owned by their leading merchant.”

“Once, the Blessed One was staying at Nalanda in the Pavarika Mango Grove. Then, the householder Upali approached the Blessed One… Having sat down to one side, the householder Upali said to the Blessed One: ‘Venerable Sir, what is the cause and what is the reason why some beings in this world do not attain complete liberation (Nirvana) in this very life? And Venerable Sir, what is the cause and what is the reason why some beings in this world do attain complete liberation in this very life?’”121

“Thus have I heard: Once the Blessed One was walking along the high road between Rajagaha and Nalanda with a large company of some 500 monks. At that time, the mendicant

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Dīgha Āgama, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Tu Thư Đại Học Vạn Hạnh, 1972. 94.
  • Middle Discourses Upali Sutta https://suttacentral.net/
  • Samyutta Nikaya (The Connected Discourses), Volume IV. Translated by Most Venerable Thích Minh Châu, Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies, Ho Chi Minh City, 1993, page 189.

Suppiya was also traveling along the road between Rajagaha and Nalanda with his young disciple, Brahmadatta.”122

.3. THE BIRTHPLACE OF SARIPUTTA

Buddhist tradition, including the Mahasudassana Jataka, states that Sariputta, the Buddha’s chief disciple foremost in wisdom, was born in a village named Nala (or Nalagrama) near Nālandā. Some texts suggest he also passed into Parinirvana there, adding to the site’s sanctity.

8.4.  ACCOUNTS BY CHINESE PILGRIMS

 

 
  clip_image126.jpg

At the Xuanzang (Hsiuen Tsang) Memorial Hall, Nalanda Complex, on October 4, 1996. From right:

Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Nguyên Hương, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Ven. Đồng Văn, Ven. Bửu Chánh, Ven. Giác Ngôn, Ven. Tâm Đức,

and Ven. Đồng Trí.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • This is the famous opening of the Brahmajala Sutta (The All-Embracing Net of Views). It is significant because it highlights the contrast between the teacher Suppiya (who criticized the Buddha) and his student Brahmadatta (who praised him), leading the Buddha to teach about the “62 views.”

The most detailed descriptions of Nālandā come from the 7th- century Chinese masters:

Xuanzang (Hsiuen Tsang): He stayed at Nālandā for many years, studying Yoga-shastra under the venerable Silabhadra. He reported that the university was surrounded by a brick wall and housed over 10,000 students and 1,510 teachers. He noted that the competition was so fierce that only two or three out of ten applicants passed the entrance exam.

Yijing (I-Tsing): He stayed at Nālandā for ten years and provided meticulous details on the monastic rules, daily schedules, and the curriculum, which included the Vedas, Logic (Hetuvidya), Grammar (Sabdavidya), Medicine (Chikitsavidya), and Metaphysics.

8.5.   INFLUENCE ON TIBET AND BEYOND

Nālandā was the primary source for the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. Great scholars like Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava traveled from Nālandā to the “Land of Snows,” carrying with them the vast philosophical traditions of the university. Many of Nālandā’s lost Sanskrit texts were preserved and translated into the Tibetan Kangyur and Tengyur.

Conclusion

From Buddhist and Jain scriptures to the records of Chinese pilgrims, it is clear that Nālandā was a thriving town from the Buddha’s time. By the 5th to 7th centuries CE, it had evolved into the most prestigious university in the world, renowned not only for its towering libraries but also for the “miracle of instruction” that attracted scholars from China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, Tibet, and Sri Lanka.

The summer sun of Delhi, June 18, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.9. THE GOLDEN AGE OF NĀLANDĀ UNIVERSITY

When discussing the brilliant achievements and sophisticated education systems at the dawn of human history, Nālandā University stands as a peerless example. Often referred to as a “Mother University,” it was the first elite international university in India, serving as a model for institutional learning.123

The name “ Nālandā” existed long before the university’s formal establishment (spanning the 2nd to 12th centuries CE). In the time of Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE), Buddhist literature notes that the Buddha stayed in Pavarika’s mango grove in Nālandā, describing it as a prosperous and prestigious town.

“The Buddha was staying at Nalanda in Pavarika’s mango grove...”124

At the time of the Buddha, Nalanda was a smaller village near Rajgir. It later became the site of the world-famous Buddhist university.

Nālandā was also the home of the Buddha’s two chief disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana. Sariputta, in particular, spent much of his life spreading the Dharma there and eventually entered Parinirvana in his birthplace.

9.1.  THE FOUNDATIONS OF A COLOSSUS

The exact date of the university’s founding remains a subject of historical debate. The historian Taranatha suggests that King Ashoka (3rd century BCE) built a stupa for Sariputta at Nālandā, marking him as a potential founder. Others argue the university began in the 1st or 2nd century CE, as the legendary philosopher

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • The University of Nalanda, D. Sankalia, Delhi-6, 1972, p. 274.
  • Digha Nikaya / Long Discourses of the Buddha, Kevaddahasutta, 11. Vietnameese translate by Thích Minh Châu, Tu Thư Vạn Hạnh, Sài Gòn, 1967.

Nagarjuna served as its abbot and teacher during that time.125 However, most archaeological evidence, including seals, copper plates, and statues, points to the Gupta Dynasty (5th century CE) as the era when Nālandā reached its monumental architectural form.

By the time the Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang (629–645 CE) and Yijing (675–685 CE) arrived, Nālandā had become a vast monastic city. Xuanzang recorded a staggering population of 10,000 students and 1,510 professors, with nearly a hundred Dharma lectures delivered daily.

9.2.  RIGOROUS ACADEMIC STANDARDS

Nālandā was famous for its exceptionally high entrance standards. Students of all backgrounds, Brahmin, Buddhist, or otherwise, could apply, but the “Gatekeepers” (learned monks who guarded the entrances) subjected candidates to such intense interrogation that only two or three out of ten were admitted.

The curriculum was remarkably broad, covering both “old” and “new” works:

The “Old” Works: The Vedas,126 Upanishads127, Samkhya

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Nava Nalanda Mahavihara: A Sketch, Prof. Dr. Dipak Kuma Barua, 1996, Patna, p. 4; Nalanda University “An Academic colossus of its time”, Rakesh Kumar Singh, Delhi University, 1986, p.36.
  • The word Veda literally means “Knowledge” or “True Wisdom” (Trí chân thật). These are the oldest scriptures of Hinduism/Brahmanism.
  • Upaniṣad (Ưu-ba-ni-sa-đà): Known as Áo Nghĩa Thư (The Secret/Hidden Teachings). Etymology: Literally “sitting down near” a teacher to receive esoteric Era: Mostly composed between 800 BCE and 500 BCE (roughly the 8th to 6th centuries BCE). Philosophy: They represent the “Vedanta” (end of the Vedas), shifting focus from external rituals to internal meditation and the relationship between Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the ultimate reality).

philosophy128, Vaisheshika129, and Nyaya (logic)130.

  • The “New” Works: Mahayana and Theravada scriptures, and the philosophies of the 18 Buddhist
  • Specialized Subjects: Grammar, Medicine (Chikitsavidya), Astronomy, Music, and

9.3.  THE GREAT MASTERS OF NĀLANDĀ

The prestige of Nālandā was built upon its world-renowned faculty. To be a professor, one had to be a master of dozens of scriptures. The lineage of masters includes:

 
  clip_image047.gif


Nagarjuna: The founder of the Middle Way (Madhyamaka) school.131

  • Sāmkhyā is one of the six orthodox (Astika) schools of Hindu Dualism (Nhị nguyên luận): It posits that the universe consists of two eternal realities:

Purusha: Pure consciousness (the self). Prakriti: Matter/Nature.

Evolution: It explains the world through the interaction of these two and the three Gunas (qualities: Sattva, Rajas, Tamas).

Relationship to Buddhism: Sāmkhyā was highly influential during the Buddha’s time. Tradition holds that one of the Buddha’s early teachers, Alara Kalama, practiced a form of Sāmkhyā philosophy.

  • Vaiśeṣika (S): Thắng Luận Phái (Vaisheshika School)

Also known as: Vệ-thế-sư phái, Tối Thắng học phái (The Most Distinguished School), Đa nguyên thực tại luận phái (Pluralistic Realism), Phệ-thế-sử-ca phái. One of the six orthodox schools (astika) of Indian philosophy, emerging around the 1st century. It utilizes six fundamental principles (categories) to explain all phenomena: substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence. The founder is Sage Kaṇāda (Kiệt-na-đà), and the foundational text is the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra (Kinh Thắng Luận).

  • Nyāya (S): Chánh lý luận (Nyaya School / Logic)

A Brahmanical school founded around the 7th century (though its roots in the Nyāya Sūtras date back to the 2nd century BCE).

One of the four aspects (characteristics) of the Path Truth (Marga-satya): The Path (Đạo), the Right Method (Như), the Practice (Hành), and the Breakthrough/ Escape (Xuất).

  • Nāgārjuna (S): Long Thọ Bồ-tát

Biography: The 14th Patriarch in the lineage of 28 Indian Buddhist Patriarchs. Born in South India (approx. 150–250 CE). Tradition holds that through the

Āryadeva (S): Đề Bà / Thánh Thiên Bồ-tát132, Author of the Catuhsataka (Four Hundred Verses

  • Asanga and Vasubandhu: Brothers who founded the

Yogacara (Consciousness-Only) school. 133

  • Dignaga: The founder of Buddhist 134
 
  clip_image060.gif

  • Dharmapala and Silabhadra:   Silabhadra    was    the centenarian abbot who taught 135

blessings of Mahavairocana Buddha, he opened an iron stupa, entered within to pay homage to Vajrasattva, and received the Great Sutras (Mahayana scriptures). Works: Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā (Middle Way Treatise), Dvādaśamukha Śāstra (Twelve Gate Treatise), and numerous commentaries. He passed the lineage to his disciple Āryadeva (Kanadeva).

  • Āryadeva (S): Đề Bà / Thánh Thiên Bồ-tát

Biography: A 3rd-century scholar and the primary disciple of Nāgārjuna. Works: Author of the Catuhsataka (Four Hundred Verses). He is considered a co-founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school.

  • Asaṅga (S): Vô Trước Bồ-tát

Other Names: Thokmay (T), A-tăng-khư.

Biography: Born into a Brahmin family in North India (4th century). He was the elder brother of Vasubandhu. Initially a follower of the Mahisasaka school, he later converted his brother Vasubandhu to Mahayana. He is said to have ascended to Tushita Heaven to receive teachings directly from Maitreya Bodhisattva.

Legacy: Founder of the Yogacara (Conscious-only) school. He composed the “Five Treatises of Maitreya.”

Vasubandhu: the younger brother of Asaṅga.

Biography: A 4th-century philosopher and the 21st Patriarch of Indian Buddhism. Born in Peshawar, North India. He

Works: Initially a master of the Sarvastivada school, he wrote the famous Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya (Câu-xá luận). After his conversion to Mahayana by his brother, he became a pillar of the Yogacara school.

  • Dignāga is arguably the most influential Buddhist logician in history. He is recognized as the founder of Buddhist Logic (Pramāṇa) and the “New Logic” movement, which shifted Buddhist philosophy from metaphysical speculation toward epistemology (the study of how we know what we know).
  • Dharmapāla (S): Hộ Pháp

A 6th–7th century master and abbot of Nalanda University. He was the teacher of Śīlabhadra. He passed away at the young age of 32 (approx. 560 CE).

Śīlabhadra (S): Giới Hiền Luận Sư

An Indian monk and abbot of Nalanda in the 7th century. When the Chinese monk Xuanzang (Đường Huyền Trang) arrived in India, Śīlabhadra was 106

  • Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava: Masters who later brought the Nālandā tradition to 136
  • Candragomin (S): Master of the Yogacara tradition and a rival/debater of Candrakīrti.137

9.4.A CENTER OF GLOBAL DIPLOMACY

Nālandā’s brilliance acted as a diamond, attracting seekers from across the known world. Students traveled from China, Korea, Japan,138 Mongolia,139 Tibet, Tukhara140, Tibet and Sri Lanka141. In turn, Nālandā sent envoys to these nations, creating a sophisticated network of cultural and spiritual exchange.142

 
  clip_image060.gif


The university enjoyed immense royal patronage. The Gupta and Pala emperors, along with King Harsha, provided for the students’ four essential needs (food, clothing, shelter, and medicine), allowing scholars to focus entirely on their studies. Xuanzang noted that the university featured eight grand halls and 300 rooms, set amidst beautiful landscapes of red and white

years old. He transmitted the Yogacara teachings of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu to Xuanzang.

  • Śāntarakṣita (S): Tịnh Hộ (700–760 CE)

An 8th-century scholar who traveled to Tibet with Padmasambhava. He founded the Yogacara-Svatantrika-Madhyamaka synthesis and authored the Tattvasaṃgraha (Compendium of Truth).

Kamalaśīla (S): Liên Hoa Giới

An 8th-century disciple of Śāntarakṣita. He is famous for defeating the Chinese monk Hashang Mahayana in the Great Debate at Samye Monastery in Tibet. He authored the Bhāvanākrama (Stages of Meditation).

  • Candragomin (S): Nguyệt Quang

A 7th-century lay scholar and poet from Bengal. He was a master of the Yogacara tradition and a rival/debater of Candrakīrti. He authored works on grammar, logic, and the Bodhisattva-saṃvara-viṃśaka (Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vows).

  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol XIII, S., p.556.
  • A Record of Buddhist Religion, I Tsing, translated by Takakusu, 1896, p.26.
  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol XIII,V.S., p.
  • Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol XIII,V.S., t563-4.
  • Indian Teachers of Buddhist University, Phanindranath, Maras 1923, 37.

lotus ponds.

9.5.LEGACY

Nālandā remained the peak of human knowledge for nearly a millennium before its destruction in the late 12th century. It left an indelible mark on history as a model of the residential university. As H.D. Sankalia noted, Nālandā was truly the “Academic Colossus of its time.”

Late summer in Delhi, July 27, 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.10.THE BUDDHA’S MESSAGE ON EDUCATION

Education is one of the most vital factors in eradicating ignorance and prejudice, the root causes of conflict. These conflicts exist within the individual, between individuals, and between the individual and their environment or society. On a broader scale, they manifest as clashes between groups, religions, or nations. Ultimately, these are all human contradictions. Therefore, the prerequisite for resolving these conflicts and achieving inner peace and liberation is the necessity of self-knowledge.

After five years of searching for teachers and six long years of asceticism, Shakyamuni Buddha sat beneath the Bodhi tree and realized the Middle Way, also known as the Principle of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda). By lifting this veil, He awakened humanity from the dream of craving and attachment, showing that we are the masters of our own karma and the heirs to its consequences.

10.1.  THE MECHANICS OF THE SELF

The Buddha mapped out the twelve links of Dependent Origination:

From Ignorance arises Volitional Action.

From Action arises Consciousness… and so forth, leading to

Birth, Old Age, Death, Sorrow, and Despair.

Just as we create the conditions for our own suffering, we alone possess the power to dismantle them. When ignorance is extinguished, the entire chain of suffering collapses. This profound formula is summarized as:

“When this is, that is; From the arising of this, that arises. When this is not, that is not; From the cessation of this, that ceases.”143

The Buddha uses this formula during a famous debate with the philosopher Saccaka to demonstrate how the “Self” cannot be found in the five aggregates, as they are all subject to this law of cause and effect.

10.2.  MAN AS HIS OWN MASTER

This Truth of Dependent Origination was a revolutionary voice in the history of religion and philosophy. It shattered the traditional Brahmin prejudices of the time, which held that humans were mere creations of a Supreme Deity or Brahma, subject to the rewards and punishments of supernatural forces.

The Buddha consistently denied being a god or a supernatural being. He was a historical person, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya, who was moved by the universal suffering of birth, old age, sickness, and death. His motivation was Compassion (Karuna): to provide ultimate joy and rescue others from perpetual pain.

He emphasized that He was merely a “way-shower.” In His final teachings at Kushinagar, He urged:

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Paccaya Sutta (SN 20), Bahudhātuka Sutta (MN 115), Cūḷasaccaka Sutta (MN 35)

Gems of Buddhism Wisdom, The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, Taiwan, 1996, p.42.

“Be a lamp unto yourselves.

Seek no refuge outside of yourselves.

Hold fast to the Truth (Dharma) as a lamp.”144

10.3.  THE    EDUCATIONAL   PHILOSOPHY    OF    THE BUDDHA

The Buddha’s message is a holistic educational system based on

Compassion and Wisdom. It is characterized by:

  • Self-Reliance: The Buddha encouraged a spirit of One must be “an island unto oneself,” because only the individual truly understands their own mind.
  • Scientific Inquiry: His “Education” is not based on dogma or blind faith. It is an awakening of the mind to understand the psychological and physical laws governing our lives.
  • Moral Responsibility: By recognizing ourselves as the “owners of our karma,” we take full responsibility for our thoughts and actions, leading to a more harmonious relationship with society and the environment.
  • The Role of the Teacher: The Buddha acted as a guide, not a As the Dhammapada states: “You yourself must make the effort; the Buddhas only point the way.”145

 

 

10.4.CONCLUSION

The Buddha’s educational message, “Be your own refuge,” “You are the master of your karma,” “Light your own torch,” is a proactive, creative, and democratic attitude. It possesses the power to resolve the internal and external conflicts of humanity.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Digha Nikaya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta. Cunda (SN 47.13), Ukkacela (SN 47.14).
  • Digha Nikaya, Du Hành Kinh (Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, 16).

This is the “Green Letter,” an unprecedented educational message sent across twenty-five centuries, yet still vibrantly applicable to our new millennium in the Spring of 2001.

P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi, December 24, 2000. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

6.11.         BUDDHISM IN ASIA

AND EUROPE IN THE 20TH CENTURY

On the occasion of the celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, I am honored to present a few highlights regarding the development of Buddhism across Asia and Europe during the 20th century. This century has seen Buddhism emerge from a period of local stagnation to become a global force for peace and spiritual clarity.

Part I: BUDDHISM IN ASIA IN THE 20TH CENTURY

While King Ashoka first sent the message of the Buddha beyond India’s borders in the 3rd century BCE, the 20th century marked a “second wave” of revival.

1.  The Revival in India

After being forgotten in its homeland for nearly 800 years, Buddhism was reintroduced to India at the end of the 19th century by Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka. Significant 20th-century milestones146 include:

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: The architect of the Indian Constitution converted to Buddhism in 1956, leading nearly 5 million “Dalits” to the faith.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • The Maha Bodhi, March 1895, 25.

Reclaiming Holy Sites: The establishment of the Maha Bodhi Society helped restore the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya and other sacred sites like Sārnāth and Kushinagar.

2.  War, Crisis, and Devotion

Despite two World Wars and political upheavals in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar, the grassroots devotion to the Buddha remained unshaken.147

The Rise of New Sects: In Japan and Taiwan, hundreds of new Mahayana sects emerged, focusing on social welfare and modern education.

Tibetan Diaspora: Following political shifts in Tibet, His Holiness the Dalai Lama and thousands of monastics settled in India and the West, effectively spreading the Vajrayana tradition globally.

3.  Buddhism in Vietnam

In Vietnam, the Buddhist community has flourished remarkably. By the end of 1999, the statistics148 showed:

Monastics: 31,845 (Northern, Southern, and Mendicant traditions).

Temples: 14,554 nationwide.

Education: 3 Buddhist Academies (Hanoi, Hue, Ho Chi Minh City) and 28 Basic Buddhist Schools, allowing monastics to pursue both religious and secular education.

Buddhism in Sri Lanka

 
  clip_image047.gif


Since the lineage of Theravada nuns had been considered broken for nearly a millennium (disappearing around the 11th century in Sri Lanka), its re-establishment was a major legal and social

  • Arthur Machinery, Mahayana Buddhism in The West, 1993.
  • Final Report on Buddhist Affairs for 1999, Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, January 03 2000, p. 4-22.

breakthrough in the Buddhist world.149

Key Details of the Revival

The 1996 Sarnath Ordination: The movement gained significant momentum in 1996 when a group of Sri Lankan women was ordained in Sarnath, India. This was made possible with the assistance of Korean masters, as the Korean lineage had preserved the full ordination for women originally brought from Sri Lanka in the 5th century.

The 1998 Bodh Gaya Ordination: Another landmark event occurred in 1998 in Bodh Gaya, where women from various countries (including Sri Lanka and Western nations) received the Upasampada (Full Ordination). This ceremony was organized by the Fo Guang Shan order of Taiwan, acting as a bridge between the Mahayana and Theravada traditions.

The Role of Scholars: Bhikkhu Bodhi and the late Ayya Khema played critical roles in providing the scriptural and logical justifications for this revival, arguing that the Buddha’s original intent was for a four-fold assembly (Monks, Nuns, Laymen, Laywomen).

Part II: BUDDHISM IN THE WEST IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Historian Arnold Toynbee remarked that the meeting of Buddhism and the West was the most significant event of the 20th century.150

1.  Intellectual Awakening

Initially, Buddhism reached the West through literature.

Sir Edwin Arnold: His poem “The Light of Asia” (1879) inspired millions.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Hindustan Times, Patna, March 17th, 1997, 6.
  • International Buddhist Conference, Delhi,

Pali Text Society: Founded by T.W. Rhys Davids in 1881, this society systematically translated the Pali Canon into English.

Philosophy: Great thinkers like Schopenhauer and scientists like Albert Einstein expressed deep admiration for Buddhism’s rational, non-dogmatic nature. Einstein famously noted that if there were a religion that could satisfy modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.

2.  The Role of Meditation

In a Western society often exhausted by materialism and consumerism, Meditation became the “bridge.” Westerners turned to Zen (Japan), Vipassana (Southeast Asia), and Tibetan meditation to find emotional balance and spiritual meaning.

3.  Secularization and Lay Leadership

Buddhism in the West is unique because it is largely a movement of lay practitioners. These followers apply Buddhist ethics to modern problems like environmentalism, social justice, and mental health, creating a “New Turning of the Wheel of Dharma.”

4.  Digital Propagation

By the end of the 20th century, the internet revolutionized Dharma sharing. Websites, online Sūtras, and digital lectures have made the Buddha’s words available instantly across all continents.

CONCLUSION

Buddhism is no longer a purely “Eastern” religion. Through a process of globalization, it has moved westward, gaining fresh vitality. This encounter between the ancient wisdom of the East and the scientific, democratic spirit of the West provides a powerful tool for peace in the 21st century.

A misty morning at

P.G. Women’s Hostel in Delhi, Year 2000.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • The Development of Buddhism in England, Christmas Humphreys,
  • The Influence of Buddhist Philosophy in East and West, Dr. Helmuth Von
  • Mahayana Buddhism in The West, Dr. Arthur Machinery,
  • 1999 Buddhist Affairs Report, Vietnam Buddhist Sangha. hunger for Eastern spirituality. As someone who traveled from the academic halls of India back to the community leadership in California?

 6.12.         REFLECTIONS ON GLOBAL PEACE

The International Peace Summit: Towards a Culture of Harmony and Peace for Humanity, held from December 7–10, 2003, was organized by the Delhi Peace Committee (DPC) in collaboration with the Council for a Parliament of the World’s Religions (CPWR). This four-day summit gathered political figures, religious leaders, intellectuals, and social activists from India and abroad to reaffirm spiritual values and raise a unified voice against intolerance, prejudice, violence, and injustice.

In his opening address, the President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, stated:

“I am delighted that the Delhi Peace Committee is organizing an International Summit. I hope this will be a wonderful opportunity for participants to discuss ways to sustain and promote peace and well-being through the harmonious bond of global religions.”

12.1.A STRATEGY FOR GLOBAL HARMONY

Building a culture of peace requires more than just dialogue; it requires a global strategy. In a world still reeling from the conflicts of the 20th century and facing new challenges like poverty, illiteracy, and inequality, peace often remains elusive. To overcome these barriers, we must strengthen cooperation based on universal justice, inter-religious friendship, and equal opportunity for all.

Today’s world is threatened by terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and chemical weapons. This escalation of destructive power proves that we urgently need leaders who act as messengers of reconciliation rather than echoes of vengeance or ego.

12.2.  THE “SPIRINOMICS” CONCEPT

For the first time in history, we have a truly global economy that influences all civilizations. Future prosperity depends on global stability. Therefore, we must recognize the role of economics within human culture. The concept of “Spirinomics” (Spirituality + Economics) can help businesses understand that religious values and ethical conduct are essential to the peace process.

12.3.  KEY PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE PEACE

Unity in Diversity: Global diversity is a vibrant creation that must be protected. We are all members of one common spiritual family. Our freedom should be used to build others up, not to tear them down.

Individual Awareness: Peace begins with the individual. When

each person recognizes the human rights and well-being of others, global peace becomes a tangible reality.

Partnership of Science and Religion: These are the two most influential fields of human endeavor. A scientific approach to traditional religious values, combined with moral guidance for scientific progress, will accelerate the peace process.

Inclusive Voices: There is an urgent need for a youth forum, the next generation of leaders, and for the voices of women and marginalized communities to be heard.

  • CONCLUSION: PEACE AS A HABIT OF MIND

As we welcomed the Spring of the Year of the Monkey (2004), it served as a launchpad for nurturing sustainable peace. Peace and tranquility are the essential nutrients for civilization, especially when the future of humanity is at stake. Non-violence is the core strength of this peace. We must cultivate these values as a “habit of mind,” practicing them in our daily lives until they become the foundation of our collective human experience.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Towards a Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor: T.D. Singh, 7–10 December 2003, New Delhi.
  • Unity in Diversity (Thoughts of the World’s Great Religions),

O.P. Ghai, Foreword by Dr. Karan Singh, Sterling Publishers PVT. LTD, 2003, New Delhi-3.

 6.13.THE PURE LOTUS

The lotus is a flower of profound purity and one of the oldest traditions in the East. An aquatic plant native to Asia, it occupies

an ancient and revered position in cultural history, particularly within Buddhism.151

Known as “Lotus” (pundarika, lien-hua, renge), it is often regarded as the most beautiful flower in the world. Its unique distinction lies in its habitat: though it grows in murky marshes, its blossoms and fragrance remain pristine, untainted by the mud and stagnant water. As the Vietnamese folk poem beautifully captures:

Lotus Blossom Envo

“In the pond, what is as beautiful as the lotus? Green leaves, white petals, and yellow stamens.

Yellow stamens, white petals, green leaves, Close to the mud, yet it does not smell of mud.” (Mạc Đỉnh Chi) 152

13.1.                          BIOLOGICAL            AND             SYMBOLIC CHARACTERISTICS

Scientifically classified as Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn, the lotus is found in ponds and lakes throughout Asia.153 Beyond its aesthetic appeal, the lotus is a symbol of perfection amidst an impure world due to five unique qualities:

  1. Simultaneity of Cause and Effect: The flower and the seed pod (the “mirror”) appear at the same
  2. Purity: It grows in the mud yet remains clean and fragrant.
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Independence: Each flower stalk rises independently from the base, not sharing a common branch or leaf.
  • Nikkyo Niwano, Buddhism for Today, Tokyo, 1990, 24.
  • Mạc Đỉnh Chi: Trong đầm gì đẹp bằng sen Lá xanh bông trắng lại chen nhị vàng Nhị vàng bông trắng lá xanh Gần bùn mà chẳng hôi tanh mùi bùn.
  • O.Smith, The Lotus – A Buddhist Flower, The Maha Bodhi, Vol. 106, Calcuta, 2000, p. 48-49.
  1. Untouched by Lust: Bees and butterflies do not swarm or nest upon it.
  2. Simplicity: Unlike other flowers used for adornment (such as the ancient Indian custom of wearing floral garlands), the lotus stands in its natural dignity.154

The lotus only blooms after rising above the water’s surface. This symbolizes Buddha-nature in every human: enlightenment and liberation cannot be found by escaping humanity or the world, but by rising above the “mud” of worldly defilements while remaining rooted within it.

13.2. THE LOTUS IN BUDDHIST TRADITION

In Buddhist lore, when Queen Maya gave birth in the Lumbini garden, the infant Prince Siddhartha took seven steps, and a lotus flower bloomed beneath each footstep. Consequently, in Buddhist art and sculpture, the Buddha is almost always depicted standing or sitting upon a Lotus Throne (Padmasana).

In the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha illustrates the quality of a realized being through the lotus:

“Just as a lotus flower… grows in the water, rises above the water, and stands unsoiled by the water; even so, the Tathagata… lives in the world, having conquered the world, and remains unsoiled by the world.”155

This symbolism also appears in the famous story of “Picking the Flower and Smiling” (Niem hoa vi tieu). When the Buddha held up a flower before the assembly, only Mahakasyapa understood and smiled. The Buddha then transmitted the “Treasury of the True Dharma Eye” to him, ensuring the lineage

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Lotus Sutra, Vietnamese trans. Thich Tri Tinh, Phật học viện Quốc Tế, USA, 1997, p. 103.
  • Buddhavamsa (Chronicle of Buddhas) and the Anguttara Nikaya, where the Buddha explicitly uses this imagery to define the nature of an Enlightened

of enlightenment would continue to water the “lotus-nature” of all sentient beings.

13.3. CULTURAL AND PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE

The lotus is a vital part of daily life across Asia156:

  • In Vietnam, it is considered a national symbol, representing the soul of the The name “Lien” (Lotus) is a popular name for women, and Buddhist monastics often take Dharma names like Lien-Hieu or Lien-Hoa.
  • Culinary and Medicinal, every part of the lotus is useful. Lotus stems are used in salads; roots provide nutritious starch for children and the sick; the “plumule” (lotus heart) is a renowned sedative used to lower blood pressure; and the seeds are a delicacy in desserts and traditional medicines.
  • In India, known as the Water Lily, it is the national flower and a symbol of quiet beauty and purity.
  • In Thailand, the “Loy Krathong” festival involves floating lotus-shaped boats with candles and incense on the rivers to thank the Water
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • O.Smith, The Lotus – A Buddhist Flower,The Maha Bodhi, Vol. 106, Calcuta, 2000, p. 48-49.

clip_image128.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (third from left)

and Indian friends in 1995.

 

13.4.   CONCLUSION

Today, many varieties of lotuses exist, from pure white and pink to rare blue-tinged blossoms. Some double-petaled varieties can have up to 2,000 petals in a single bloom. Regardless of its variety, the lotus remains the ultimate symbol of purity and peace.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Reference:

  • Buddhism for Today, Nikkyo Niwano, Tokyo,
  • The Lotus – A Buddhist Flower, O. Smith, 2000.

6.14. MEDITATIONS ON THE DAY OF THE BUDDHA’S ENLIGHTENMENT

The founder of Buddhism is Shakyamuni Buddha, the Awakened One, who liberated himself from the web of craving and ignorance to see the nature of all things as they truly are. Born Siddhartha Gautama over 2,500 years ago in what is now Nepal, he was a prince who renounced a life of luxury at age 29 to seek a solution to human suffering.

14.1.  THE PATH OF EXTREME HARDSHIP

Gautama wandered the Ganges valley for years, practicing under renowned teachers and pushing his body to the absolute limits of asceticism. The Majjhima Nikaya describes his efforts with harrowing detail:

“Then, Aggivessana, I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose, and ears. As I did so, violent winds carved through my head. Just as if a strong man were splitting my head open with a sharp sword, so too did these violent winds carve through my head. Although my energy was unflagging and my mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and uncalm because I was exhausted by that painful striving. Yet, Aggivessana, such painful feelings that arose did not obsess my mind.”157

He practiced breath retention until the air felt like a sword piercing his skull, and he fasted until his body became skeletal. He remarked that when he touched his belly, he could feel his spine; his eyes sank deep into their sockets like water at the bottom of a deep well, and his skin withered like a bitter gourd in the hot wind.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vietnamese Tripitaka, Mahāsaccaka Sutta, vol. 2, Viện Nghiên Cứu Phật Học Việt Nam, 1992.

After six years, he realized that these torturous methods did not lead to supreme wisdom. He recalled a childhood memory of meditating under a rose-apple tree, a state of peaceful joy. He realized that the body must be nourished to support the mind, much like the strings of a lute: if they are too tight, they snap; if too loose, they will not play. This was the birth of the Middle Way.

14.2.  THE NIGHT OF ENLIGHTENMENT

He accepted a bowl of milk rice from the village girl Sujata158 and sat beneath the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, vowing not to rise until he achieved enlightenment. During the 49th night, he ascended through the four stages of meditative absorption (Dhyana):

First Watch of the Night: He achieved Recollection of Past Lives (Pubbenivasanussati-ñana), seeing his own infinite cycle of rebirths.

Second Watch: He achieved the Divine Eye (Dibbacakkhu), seeing the death and rebirth of all sentient beings according to their karma.

Third Watch: He achieved the Extinction of Defilements (Asavakkhaya-ñana). Ignorance vanished, and light arose. He declared: “Birth is exhausted, the holy life has been lived, what was to be done is done, there is no more returning to this state.”

At age 35, he became the Buddha, the “Teacher of Gods and

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Origin: A village girl from the village of Senāni (or Nala) in the region of Uruvelā (Ưu-lâu-tần-loa), modern-day Bodh Gaya.

The Offering: She offered the Buddha a golden bowl of Kheer (milk rice–thức ăn làm bằng sữa, bột và mật ong) while he was emaciated from six years of extreme asceticism.

The Turning Point: This nourishment provided the physical strength required for his final meditation. Following this meal, the Buddha bathed in the Nerañjarā River and sat under the Bodhi tree, vowing not to rise until he achieved enlightenment.

Men.”159

14.3.  THE ESSENCE OF HIS TEACHING

Whether celebrated on the 8th day of the 12th lunar month (Mahayana tradition) or the full moon of Vesak (Theravada tradition), the message of his enlightenment remains the same: Emancipation through Self-Reliance.

The Buddha consistently identified himself as a human being. He taught that enlightenment is not a gift from a deity but a result of human effort and wisdom. His first sermon at Sārnāth, the Four Noble Truths, serves as the core of his 45-year mission. He opened his path to all, rejecting the rigid caste system of ancient India and championing freedom of thought.

14.4.A MESSAGE FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM

As we celebrated the Enlightenment at the dawn of the year 2001, pilgrims from across the globe gathered at the Bodhi tree. They came not just to worship a historical figure, but to pray for a society free from poverty, ignorance, and conflict.

The Buddha’s light is unique: the sun shines by day, the moon by night, but the radiance of the Buddha’s wisdom shines constantly, day and night, over the entire world. His compassion was not a fleeting emotion but a driving force to transform hatred into love and cruelty into kindness.

14.5.PRAYER FOR THE MORNING STAR

The night is long with shimmering stars, Like eyes watching through infinite eons, Waiting for dawn…

On the eastern horizon,

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Narada Maha Thera, The Buddha and his teaching, Singapo Buddhist Meditation Centre, 1973, pp.12-20.

the Morning Star appears,

A radiant light floods this world.

Not like the sun, which illuminates only half the time, Not like a flower, which blooms and fades,

But the smile of Gautama from boundless wisdom, A night of peace for three thousand worlds.

Enlightenment Day, BE 2544 (January 1, 2001)

Bodh Gaya, India.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

CITED WORK:

  1. Dhammapada (Kinh Pháp Cú), Thích Trí Đức, Ấn độ,
  2. The Buddha and His Teachings, Narada Maha Thera, Singapo Buddhist Meditation Centre, 1973.
  3. basic Buddhist Studies (Phật học Phổ thông), Thích Thiện Hoa, khóa I & II, THPGTP HCM, 1989.
  4. What the Buddha Taught (Con đường thoát khổ), Rahula, TN. Trí Hải (dịch), Đại học Vạn Hạnh, 1966.
  5. Xứ Phật Tình Quê, Thích Hạnh Nguyện & Vô Thức, Đại thừa xuất bản, tập I, 1996.

6.15. CELEBRATION OF THE BUDDHA’S ENLIGHTENMENT AND SYMPOSIUM

IN BODH GAYA

On the afternoon of December 28, 2000, Indira Gandhi International Airport in New Delhi was a scene of vibrant joy. Vietnamese student-monks and nuns gathered with bouquets of flowers and bright smiles to welcome a major pilgrimage delegation from Vietnam. Led by Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang (Head of the Central Propagation Board of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha and Editor-in-Chief of Giac Ngo Newspaper), the group of 65 was joined by Venerable Giác Toàn, Venerable Tịnh Diệu, and several senior Abbesses.

After a touching reunion in Delhi, the groups traveled to Bodh Gaya. The student-monks from Delhi braved a 15-hour train journey with supplies for 200 people, including tofu and noodles, ensuring everyone would be fed during the sacred event.

15.1.A SOLEMN REMEMBRANCE

Upon arriving in Bodh Gaya, the group received the somber news of the passing of Most Venerable Thich Thanh Kiem, Abbot of Vinh Nghiem Temple in Ho Chi Minh City. On January 1, 2001, a formal memorial service was held at the Vietnam Buddha Quoc Tu (Vietnam Temple in Bodh Gaya).

During the service, Venerable Tri Quang offered words of wisdom to the young monks and nuns studying in India:

“The great Elders are passing away one by one. I will eventually follow. Therefore, you must study well and return soon to rejuvenate the leadership of our Sangha.”

He emphasized the need to simplify rituals for a modern society, noting that his “Dharma Flower” (Phap Hoa) retreats in Vietnam succeeded because they were concise (30 minutes) and

accessible to both intellectuals and ordinary people.

 
  clip_image130.jpg

Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang give lecturer for Vietnamese monastcis student at the Wellcome Party, Buddhist studies, University of Delhi, 2000.

 

15.2.  THE SYMPOSIUM: NATURE & PATH OF ENLIGHTENMENT

Following the memorial, a symposium titled “The Nature and Path of Enlightenment and Contemporary Issues” was held. The symposium featured 66 research papers compiled into a 400-page volume. Notable presentations included:

  • Venerable Thich Nhat Tu: Discussed the concept of “Mara” (the Tempter) as a metaphor for death and afflictions rather than a celestial demon.
  • Venerable Gioi Huong: Presented on “Buddhism in Asia and Europe in the 20th Century,” suggesting that the spiritual hunger in the West makes it a prime location for a Buddhist
  • Venerable Le Tho: Advocated for the “Vietnamization” of

liturgy and the radical use of the internet and websites to spread the Dharma globally in the 3rd millennium.

15.3.  THE GRAND CEREMONY AT THE BODHI TREE

The main celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment (Buddhist Era 2544) took place on the morning of January 2, 2001. For the first time, a large blue banner with white Vietnamese lettering hung proudly at the gates of the Mahabodhi Temple:

“Kính Mừng Đại Lễ Phật Thành Đạo – Celebration of the Buddha’s Enlightenment Day”

Over 50 international monastics from Thailand, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and beyond joined the Vietnamese delegation under the sacred Bodhi tree.

The atmosphere was electric with devotion. The group performed a ritual of wrapping three bright yellow robes around the trunk of the Bodhi tree. At the suggestion of Venerable Huyen Dieu, all participants touched their foreheads to the tree and then held hands, forming a massive human circle around the Great Stupa. This “living mandala” of different races and nationalities symbolized a unified commitment to bringing the Buddha’s message of peace to the world.

15.4.  CONCLUSION OF THE JOURNEY

As the ceremonies ended, the pilgrims prepared to return. Most Venerable Tri Quang and his group departed for Calcutta and then Bangkok, while others stayed to visit further holy sites. The student-monks returned to Delhi, their luggage now filled with souvenirs and the spiritual “baggage” of renewed motivation.

Delhi, January 08, 2001

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

 

6.16. THE SEVENTH SAKYADHITA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE IN TAIWAN

The Seventh Sakyadhita Conference (“Daughters of the Buddha”) was held in July 2002 at Huafan University in Taiwan. Perched atop a mountain an hour from Taipei, the conference gathered 326 members, 200 monastics, and 126 laywomen, from 27 countries.

 
  clip_image132.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Minh Huệ and Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương at Seventh Sakyadhita Conference, Huafan University, Taiwan, July 2002.

 

16.1.  THE VENUE: HUAFAN UNIVERSITY

Huafan University was founded in 1990 by the multi-talented Abbess Hiu Wan. At 92 years old, she remains a poet, artist, and Zen master who has dedicated her life to Prajna Zen. The campus, with its modern facilities, meditation centers, and

elegant stone gardens, provided a tranquil atmosphere for the “Daughters of the Buddha” to discuss the theme: “Bridging Worlds.”

16.2.  INTELLECTUAL EXCHANGE

The conference was a gathering of intellectuals: professors, researchers, social activists, and monastics. Building on the previous conference in Lumbini (2000), which focused on “Women as Peacemakers,” this session aimed to build bridges between different cultures, traditions, and the challenges of the modern world.

The theme of the Seventh Sakyadhita Conference in Taiwan was “Bridging Worlds,” chosen to represent the diverse connections between academic fields, nations, and spiritual traditions. The conference aimed to build bridges between:

Buddhist women in Taiwan and the global community. Diverse Buddhist lineages and world religions.

Daily life and the ideal of world-transcendence. Theory and practice, the ancient and the modern. Gender gaps and institutional reforms.

The ultimate goal was to strengthen the Sakyadhita alliance for world peace and social equality, exploring how Buddhism applies to a globalized world and supporting the international community of Bhikṣuṇī s (nuns).

16.3.  SUPPORT AND LEADERSHIP

The conference was sponsored by several major Taiwanese organizations, including the Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women, the Wuyen Association for the Blind, the National Taiwan University Center for Buddhist Studies, and Huafan University.

The success of the organization is largely attributed to Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo, a professor at the University of San Diego and a disciple of the 14th Dalai Lama. An American-born nun (Hawaii, 1944), she holds a PhD in Philosophy and has spent decades breaking barriers for women in Buddhism. Her physical scars, including snake bites from clearing forests to build the Jamyang Choling nunnery in Ladakh, are a testament to her “engaged Buddhism” and dedication to educating women in the Himalayas.

16.4.  THE VOICE OF WOMEN IN BUDDHISM

Over a week, nearly 50 presentations addressed critical issues. Notable speakers included:

Venerable Tenzin Palmo (UK): Famous for her 12-year solitary retreat in a Himalayan cave, she spoke on “The Rising Voice of Women in Buddhism.”

Annette Lu (Vice President of Taiwan): A practicing Buddhist and the first female Vice President in Taiwan’s history. She championed the concept of “Soft Power,” a strength rooted in compassion, tolerance, and wisdom rather than violence or weaponry.

Venerable Hanh Hue & Venerable Minh Hue (Vietnam): Presented on the status and nature of women in the Buddha’s teachings and the Vietnamese Sangha.

Sister Dr. Malia Dominica Wong (USA): A Catholic nun who spoke on “Love in Any Language,” illustrating her talk with images of children from all races smiling together.

A key highlight was the discussion on Taiwanese Buddhist Nuns, who now outnumber monks three-to-one. They represent a highly educated, powerful force in social work, education, and international relief, serving as a global model for contemporary monastics.

clip_image134.jpg

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương (first line, far right) listening to the lectures from the Seventh Sakyadhita Conference, Huafan University, Taiwan, July 2002.

 

16.5.  CULTURAL EXCHANGE AND PILGRIMAGE

Following the formal sessions, participants toured Taiwan’s most significant cultural and religious sites:

  • The National Palace Museum: Home to rare ancient Buddhist art, particularly from the Tang
  • Fo Guang Shan (Lanyang Ashram & Kaohsiung): Founded by Master Hsing Yun, this organization is world-renowned for its modern approach to “Humanistic ”
  • Taroko Gorge (Hualien): Visited the Tuong Duc Temple, home to the world’s tallest statue of Ksitigarbha (Earth Store)
  • Tzu Chi: Visited the hospital and institute founded by the renowned Abbess Cheng Yen, whose medical and humanitarian work is legendary in

The conference concluded with a poignant farewell at the Kim Quang Minh Temple on July 20, 2002. Participants departed as “Daughters of the Buddha,” carrying with them the “soft power” of compassion to their respective homelands, with a promise to reunite in South Korea for the 8th conference in 2004.

Taipei, July 10, 2002

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

clip_image121.gif

 
  clip_image122.gif


 Volume III

 

CHAPTER 7

SACRED LINEAGES - THE EVOLUTION OF THE BHIKSUNI SANGHA

AND INTERNATIONAL BUDDHIST MOVEMENTS

  1. Peace of Mind and Body from the Buddha’s Enlightenment
  2. Kiều Đàm Di (Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī) Vietnamese Temple in Vaishali, India
  3. Pilgrimage to Buddhist Temples in New Delhi
  4. Mahāpajāpatī Gotami (The Great Matriarch)
  5. Interreligious Values for a Global Society
  6. Conference on “Buddhism and the Spiritual Journey” in New Delhi
  7. The 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women in Korea
  8. The Buddha’s Symphony of Absolute Silence (Events in India, 2003)
  9. Chronology of Korean Buddhism
  10. Unique Features of Korean Temples
  1. The Buddhist Nuns (Bhikṣuṇī Sangha) of Korea
  2. Women and Buddhist Precepts
  3. International Religious Movements
  4. Formation and Development of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha in India
  5. Finding Peace Within the Mind
  6. Brief Overview of Vaishali

Appendix: Images of Venerable Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong during her studies in India (1990–2003)

Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf Author

7.1.   PEACE OF MIND AND BODY FROM THE BUDDHA’S ENLIGHTENMENT

The birth of the Buddha occurred over 2,600 years ago, during a vibrant era of intellectual ferment. It was a time when the world saw the rise of the schools of Socrates and Plato in Greece, Zoroaster in Persia, and Confucius in China. In India, the Buddha’s homeland, Brahmin philosophers were busy with the logic of the Upanishads, the Jains were debating contradictory categories, and the Ajivikas were promoting fatalism, alongside various other materialist and semi-materialist thinkers. It was to address the limitations of these various traditions that Shakyamuni Buddha appeared in this world.

The Buddha created a revolution in the spiritual world when he proclaimed the dynamic doctrine of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda) regarding life and the world. The goal of his teaching was to bring peace and happiness to all sentient beings. His primary ideal was to help beings transcend the wrong view of a permanent “self,” the clinging to one’s own knowledge (intellectual obstacles), and the desire to possess things eternally. He taught that ignorant efforts to grasp these ephemeral things eventually lead to unrest and suffering.

The first two verses of the Dhammapada provide a summary of the Buddha’s ethical and philosophical system:

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, suffering follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.”

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness follows him like his never-departing shadow.”

The Buddha’s teachings possess a profound and miraculous

meaning. Applying the Eightfold Path, the eight factors of rightness that purify body, speech, and mind, bring infinite peace to one’s life.

In a technical sense, the term ‘Dhamma’ means the ultimate elements of existence: mind (mental factors), matter, and the entirety of existence in the world. Today, even materialism respects idealism for the purpose of satisfying temporary psychological needs.

The awakening of the Buddha and the noble Dharma he preached guide humanity toward peace and happiness. A life of conflict finds no favor in the Buddha’s teachings. Shakyamuni Buddha was not a god of war, but a man of peace. He famously advised his disciples not to engage in military careers or the trade of weapons.

Buddhism is a religion perfectly suited for those who cherish freedom and peace. It contains no rigid dogmas. With boundless compassion, the Buddha taught humanity the method by which he attained total liberation and encouraged us to follow that path through self-awareness. Whether or not we choose to follow this path to renounce the world’s suffering is entirely our own decision.

Buddhism seeks to build a world where there is no war between human beings. Furthermore, the Buddha taught us how to cultivate and increase our wisdom.

In summary, the Buddha taught humans how to live happily, clearly, and freely in the present moment, which naturally secures happiness for the future. Beyond this, what else could humanity desire?

By practicing the Buddha’s teachings, we save ourselves from the suffering and troubles of life. The cultivation of the Dharma is the supreme way to improve the quality of human life. If one integrates the Buddha’s teachings into daily life, they will be

able to resolve all internal problems and achieve true peace of mind.

Furthermore, life will become better and the world more beneficial if we know how to apply the Buddha’s words to cultivate peace both within our hearts and in the world around us.

 
  clip_image136.jpg

The Mahabodhi Stupa, the site of the Buddha’s enlightenment, located in Bodhgaya, Bihar.

Photo by Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, October 3, 1996.

 

 

7.2.   KIEU-DAM-DI VIETNAMESE NUNNERY IN VAISHALI, INDIA

India is the cradle of Buddhism. After centuries of fluctuation, rising and falling, then rising again, Buddhism is currently flourishing once more in its birthplace. The global and local

Buddhist communities are collaborating to build and spread the Dharma, starting with the establishment of temples for monastics to practice and guest houses for pilgrims from all directions.

In the four major sacred sites, Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sārnāth (first sermon), and Kushinagar (passing), many international temples already exist. However, in locations like Vaishali, Kaushambi, and others, the presence is still growing. Regarding the Vietnamese contribution, we have seen the Vietnam Buddha Quoc Tu and Linh Son temples in Lumbini, as well as several establishments in Bodh Gaya and Kushinagar.

2.1.  THE FIRST VIETNAMESE NUNNERY AT THE CRADLE OF THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA

Driven by the desire to create a meeting place for the Vietnamese diaspora in the land of the Buddha, Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Khiết Minh (Kim Lien Temple, Ho Chi Minh City) mobilized resources to build the first Vietnamese nunnery in India. Significantly, she chose Vaishali, the historical cradle of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha.

It was here that Mahāpajāpatī Gotami (the Buddha’s aunt and foster mother) renounced her royal status. She traveled approximately 200 kilometers on foot, barefoot, from Kapilavastu to Vaishali to earnestly request that women be allowed to “leave the household life and live the homeless life under the Dhamma and Vinaya.” Her perseverance opened the gates for women to live a life of liberation, making her the first Bhikṣuṇī and a pioneer in female liberation.160

2.2.  THE FOUNDING OF THE BHIKKHUNI SANGHA IN THE BUDDHA TIME

The Establishment of the Bhikkhuni Order

1. 

 
  clip_image047.gif


Context of the Request

  • Narada, The Buddha and his Teachings, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia, 1977, p. 150.
  • Location: The event takes place primarily in Vesali (Vaishali) at the Kutagara Hall in the Mahavana (Great Wood).
  • Catalyst: Following the death of King Suddhodana, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī (the Buddha’s foster mother and aunt) sought to leave worldly life. The opportunity arose after the Buddha settled a water dispute over the Rohini River between the Sakyans and Koliyans.
  • The Struggle: After being refused three times in Kapilavatthu, Mahāpajāpatī and 500 Sakyan women shaved their heads, donned yellow robes, and walked 150 miles (200km) to Vesali to prove their

2.  The Mediation of Venerable Ānanda

Venerable Ānanda acted as the crucial intermediary. His argument to the Buddha was two-fold:

  • Equality of Potential: He asked if women were capable of attaining the four stages of enlightenment (Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahant). The Buddha confirmed they were.
  • Gratitude: Ānanda reminded the Buddha of the great debt of gratitude owed to Mahāpajāpatī for nursing and raising him after Queen Maya’s

3.  The Result: The Eight Respectful Rules (Garudhammas)

The Buddha finally granted permission, provided that Mahāpajāpatī and the women accepted the Eight Garudhammas (Eight Respectful Rules/Tám Kính Pháp), which established the formal relationship between the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni orders.

The Passing of King Suddhodana and the Founding of the Nuns’ Order

At the time King Suddhodana passed away, the Buddha was staying in Vesali (also known as Vaishali). His foster mother,

Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī, decided to renounce worldly life and awaited a favorable opportunity to ask the Buddha’s permission to ordain. This opportunity arrived when the Buddha returned to Kapilavatthu to mediate a dispute over the waters of the Rohini River between the Sakyan and Koliyan clans.

After the dispute was settled, the Buddha preached the Kalahavivada Sutta (The Discourse on Quarrels and Disputes). Consequently, five hundred Sakyan youths were moved and sought ordination. Their wives, led by Mahāpajāpatī, also approached the Buddha to request permission to join the Order:

“Lord, it would be a great blessing if women were allowed to leave their homes and lead the homeless life under the Dhamma and Vinaya proclaimed by the Tathagata.”161

The Buddha refused immediately without giving a reason:

“Enough, Mahāpajāpatī! Do not ask for such a thing.”

Mahāpajāpatī repeated her request three times, but the Buddha remained firm in his refusal. Later, the Buddha returned to Vesali and stayed at the Kutagara Hall in the Mahavana.

With unyielding resolve, Mahāpajāpatī shaved her hair, donned yellow robes, and, accompanied by many Sakyan noblewomen, endured great hardship by walking 150 miles (approx. 200km) from Kapilavatthu to Vesali. With swollen feet and a dust- covered body, she stood outside the Kutagara Hall.

Seeing her weeping, Venerable Ānanda asked the reason and then appealed to the Buddha:

“Lord, look at Mahāpajāpatī standing outside the gate with swollen feet, covered in dust, and looking very sorrowful. Please, let women renounce the home life under your guidance.”

 
  clip_image047.gif


“Enough, Ānanda, the Tathagata cannot accept the ordination of women!”

  • Vinaya Pitaka, II, Pali Text Society, trang 256.

Though Ānanda pleaded several times, the Buddha continued to refuse. Finally, Ānanda respectfully asked: “Lord, are women capable of attaining the fruits of Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahantship if they lead the homeless life under your Dhamma and Vinaya?”

The Buddha replied that women were indeed capable of achieving these holy fruits. Encouraged, Ānanda entreated: “Lord, if women have that capacity, and considering that Mahāpajāpatī was your aunt and foster mother, nursing you with her own milk and loving you in place of your mother, please, out of compassion, allow women to ordain.”

Finally, the Buddha answered: “Ānanda, if Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī accepts these Eight Respectful Rules, then she is permitted to ordain, and the Order of Nuns shall be established.”

2.3.  THE FOUNDATION STONE LAYING CEREMONY FOR THE MAHĀPAJĀPATĪ TEMPLE IN PRESENT

On the winter morning of January 17, 2005, the Kieu-Dam- Di Vietnamese Nunnery in Vaishali held its foundation stone laying ceremony. Over 120 distinguished guests attended, including:

  • Most Venerable Nyaneinda (Abbot of the Burmese Temple, Bodh Gaya).
  • Most Venerable Pannyalankara (Abbot of the Chinese Temple, Nālandā).
  • Venerable Lama    Gosok    Rinpoche    (Former    Vice- Chancellor of Gyumed and Sera Universities).
  • Srinivasa (District Magistrate of Vaishali).
  • Representatives from the Vietnamese Embassy and the Vietnam News
  • Venerable Thich Giac Toan (Vietnam Buddhist Sangha)

and various student-monks from Delhi University.

2.4.A VISION FOR THE FUTURE

Bhikṣuṇī TN Huệ Phúc, representing the nunnery’s management board (including Venerable Bhikṣuṇī Khiết Liên, Bhikṣuṇī Như Bửu, Bhikṣuṇī Như Thuận, and Bhikṣuṇī Đàm Hải), expressed the project’s core intent:

“‘Drinking water, remember the source’ is our duty. We wish to create a site to worship the First Matriarch Kieu-Dam-Di. This place will serve as a sanctuary for nuns and laypeople to practice, reminding us to follow her example of diligence and ‘benefiting self and others.’”

The project sits on over 7,000 square meters of land. By the time of the ceremony, over $100,000 USD had already been invested in land acquisition, leveling, and initial construction.

2.5.SUPPORT FROM LEADERSHIP AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Venerable Giac Toan praised the initiative as an act of “gratitude and giving,” reclaiming the historical heritage of Buddhist women while building a future for subsequent generations. The District Magistrate, Mr. Srinivasa, expressed his joy at the nunnery’s presence alongside Sri Lankan and Japanese temples, pledging his full support for security and legal procedures. Mr.

P.V. Việt, representing the Vietnamese Embassy, hailed the project as a “cultural bridge between India and Vietnam.”

The ceremony concluded with a traditional chanting service, the formal laying of the stone, and a vegetarian luncheon featuring Vietnamese flavors. Guests received souvenirs, including wood carvings of the Buddha and portraits of Matriarch Mahāpajāpatī Gotami teaching her disciples by a stream.

The inauguration marked the beginning of a new chapter, restoring the presence of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha on their ancestral land.

P.G. Women Hostel, Delhi University January 26, 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 6.3. A PILGRIMAGE TO BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN NEW DELHI

The life of Shakyamuni Buddha remains a boundless source of inspiration. His teachings on non-violence, compassion, and wisdom are eternally relevant, contributing to both personal happiness and global peace. On the occasion of the 2548th Buddha Purnima (Vesak), our group of Vietnamese monastics and laypeople, including students from Delhi University and friends from Russia and India, set out to visit the Buddhist temples of India’s capital. While New Delhi is home to approximately 20 Buddhist temples, time permitted us to visit six significant locations.

3.1.   BUDDHIST LIVING AND WELFARE CENTER

Located in West Sagarpur, this center is led by Venerable Karuna, an Indian monk from the Tripura region. The temple serves a tight-knit community of about 50 local Buddhists. Upon our arrival, we were warmly greeted with roses, a beautiful gesture of hospitality. We participated in the Vesak ceremony and shared a Chinese-style vegetarian meal. The Abbot kindly shared photo albums of his own pilgrimage to Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City and Nha Trang), strengthening our cross-cultural bond.

3.2.   MAHA BODHI TEMPLE (MAHA BODHI SOCIETY OF INDIA)

Situated on Mandir Marg, this is a central hub for Buddhists in Delhi. On this sacred day, the temple was bustling with Indian

Buddhists dressed in vibrant traditional attire. Families gathered under large tents to listen to Dharma talks and recordings of Sūtra chanting.

Adjacent to this temple is the magnificent Birla Temple (Shri Laxmi Narayan). Representing the Hindu faith (which comprises 80% of India’s population), this grand structure was built by the famous Birla merchant family in the 20th century and remains a major landmark for visitors.

3.3.   BHOGAL BUDDHA TEMPLE

Located in Jangpura Bhogal, this temple is led by Venerable Jan Yai, a Thai monk. Built in 1960, the temple features distinct Thai architecture and houses a large bronze statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, reminiscent of the Thai temples in Bodh Gaya and Kushinagar.

3.4.   JAGAJJYOTI VIHARA SABHA

Led by Venerable Karunananda, this temple in East of Kailash holds historical significance. The Abbot noted that this site is traditionally associated with where the Buddha preached the Mahasibatan Sūtra. We were moved to see a stone inscription recording the foundation stone laying in 1966, an event attended by the former Ambassador of the Republic of Vietnam to India. Our group joined their extensive program, which included Buddhist flag-raising ceremonies, sports for youth, and Dharma quizzes.

3.5.  ASHOKA MISSION

Founded in 1948 by Venerable Dharmavara of Cambodia, this mission sits on 12.5 acres of lush land donated by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. The mission’s name reflects the goal of reviving the Dharma, much like King Ashoka. The temple has hosted luminaries such as the Dalai Lama and various world Buddhist leaders. We were pleasantly surprised

to find an inscription on the altar base noting a donation from Most Venerable Kim Trieu of Vinh Binh, Vietnam. The current Abbot, Vama Lolzang, gifted us books on the Dalai Lama and Himalayan health research.

3.6.   SANSKRITI KENDRA (ANANDAGRAM)

Our final stop was this beautiful cultural oasis in the suburbs of Delhi. This center hosts a meditation group that follows the tradition of Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh. Although the Zen Master was not physically present, the community, led by Dharmacharya Shantum, maintains a twice-monthly practice.

  • Mindful Walking: We practiced walking meditation through the gardens for an hour, guided by the mantra: “I have arrived, I am home.”
  • Sitting Meditation: We sat in a circular outdoor amphitheater, listening to recorded instructions from Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh, practicing deep, mindful breathing.
  • The Light of Wisdom: The evening concluded with a candlelighting ceremony around a giant, ancient Bodhi Each of the hundred participants held a candle, protected by clever paper circles to catch the wax, and walked three times around the tree. The combined glow of these hundred lights served as a powerful symbol of the “Sangha-body” and our shared commitment to peace.

As the night ended, the collective light of those candles illuminated more than just the Sanskriti Kendra; it reflected the serene eyes and compassionate hearts of practitioners from Vietnam, India, and the West, all united under the Buddha’s light.

Delhi, May 05, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.4.THE GREAT MATRIARCH MAHĀPAJĀPATĪ GOTAMI

Mahāpajāpatī Gotami is revered as the foremost Bhikṣuṇī and the founding matriarch of the Buddhist Nunnery. She was the first woman to receive ordination, leading the women of the Sakya clan to renounce worldly life. Her journey from a queen and the Buddha’s foster mother to an Arhat (an enlightened being) remains one of the most significant chapters in the history of human rights and spiritual equality.162

4.1.   RENUNCIATION AND PERSEVERANCE

Born in Devadaha and the sister of Queen Mahamaya, she raised Prince Siddhartha as her own son after the Queen’s passing. Following the Buddha’s enlightenment and the death of King Suddhodana, she sought to leave household life.

The opportunity arose in Vaishali. Leading 500 Sakyan women, she traveled 200 kilometers on foot from Kapilavastu to Vaishali. Arriving with swollen feet and bodies covered in dust, she stood outside the Kutagara Hall in tears. When the Buddha initially refused her request for female ordination,163 Venerable Ananda intervened. He reminded the Buddha of Mahapajapati’s kindness in nursing him and asked if women were capable of attaining the fruits of enlightenment (Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arhatship). The Buddha confirmed they were.

4.2. THE            EIGHT            RESPECTFUL            RULES (GARUDHAMMAS)

 
  clip_image047.gif


The Buddha agreed to the formation of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha on the condition that Mahāpajāpatī and all future nuns observe

  • Narada, The Buddha and his Teachings, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia, 1977, p. 150.
  • Cullavagga, Vinayapitaka, ed. H. Oldenberg, London, vol. II, 1879-83, page 253 ff; Anguttara Nikaya, ed. R. Morris, E.Hardy, C.A.F. Rhys Davids, PTS, 1885-1910, 8.51.

the Eight Heavy Rules. These rules were designed to ensure harmony and provide a framework for nuns to practice humility and respect within the broader monastic community. Mahāpajāpatī joyfully accepted these conditions, marking the official birth of the Nunnery.

4.3. TEACHINGS ON TRUE DHARMA

After her ordination, she asked the Buddha for a summary of the path. He taught her that any teaching leading to ambition, pride, greed, or attachment is not the Dharma. In contrast, the True Dharma leads to:

  • Peace (not desire)
  • Respect (not arrogance)
  • Solitude (not urban bustle)
  • Effort (not laziness)
  • Contentment (not endless wanting)

Applying these principles, she achieved Arhatship. Her enlightenment is captured in her verse: “All suffering I have known, the cause of craving has dried up; I have followed the Eightfold Path, the way to end birth and death.”

4.5.     THE LEADERSHIP AND ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE FIRST NUNS

  1. The First Women’s Order in Human History

The Buddha was a pioneer in establishing a fully autonomous religious order for women with its own code of discipline (Vinaya). To ensure the stability of the community, he appointed top leaders for both the monks and the nuns:

For the Bhikkhu Sangha: Venerable Sāriputta (Chief in Wisdom) and Moggallāna (Chief in Psychic Powers).

For the Bhikkhuni Sangha: Venerable Khemā (Chief in Wisdom) and Uppalavaṇṇā (Chief in Psychic Powers).

ii.   The Eight Criteria of True Dhamma

When Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī asked for a concise teaching to reach the final goal, the Buddha provided a “litmus test” for spiritual practice. This is often referred to as the Gotamī Sutta criteria.

False Dhamma Leads To:

True Dhamma (The Master’s Teaching) Leads To:

Passion/Ambition

(Tham vọng)

Detachment/Dispassion

(An lạc/Ly tham)

Bondage/Pride

(Ngạo mạn)

Freedom/Humility

(Khiêm cung)

Accumulation

(Ham muốn nhiều)

Shedding/Wanting little

(Muốn ít)

Socializing

(Phồn hoa đô thị)

Seclusion (Thích ẩn dật)

Laziness/Sloth

(Hôn trầm)

Aroused Persistence (Nỗ lực)

Difficulty in Support

(Khó thỏa mãn)

Contentment (Biết đủ)

4.6.       THE BUDDHA WAS THE FIRST RELIGIOUS LEADER TO ESTABLISH AN ORDER OF NUNS

In the history of humanity, the Buddha was the first religious leader to establish an Order of Nuns with a complete system of precepts and discipline. He appointed the Bhikkhunis Khemā and Uppalavaṇṇā as the chief female disciples, just as he had appointed Sāriputta and Moggallāna as the chief male disciples.

After her ordination, the Bhikkhuni Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī

approached the Blessed One, paid homage, and asked for

a teaching so that she might achieve the ultimate goal. The Buddha taught her:

‘Mahāpajāpatī, you should clearly wake up to this: whatever qualities lead to passion and not to dispassion; to pride and not to humility; to accumulation and not to shedding; to socializing and not to seclusion; to laziness and not to persistence; to being difficult to support and not to being easy to support, you may categorically hold: “This is not the Dhamma, this is not the Vinaya, this is not the Teacher’s instruction.”164

But whatever qualities lead to dispassion… to humility… to shedding… to seclusion… to persistence… to being easy to support, you may categorically hold: “This is the Dhamma, this is the Vinaya, this is the Teacher’s instruction.”’165

Following this, Mahāpajāpatī practiced with intense concentration, developed insight, and attained Arahantship. Her five hundred companions also attained this fruit after hearing the Nandakovāda Sutta (Instruction from Nandaka). In the Therīgāthā (Verses of the Elder Nuns),166 eight verses from Mahāpajāpatī are recorded. Her second verse expresses her enlightenment and Nirvana:

‘All suffering I have fully known,

The cause, craving, has dried up,

I have followed the Noble Eightfold Path,

The cessation of birth and death has been touched by me.’

(Sanskrit/Pali: Sabba dukkha pariññātā, hetu taṇhā visositā, Ariyaṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, nirodho phusito mayā.)”

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vinaya Texts, Part III: 329–330.
  • Vinaya Texts, Part III: 329–330.
  • Therīgāthā: Verses 157–162. The verses of Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī.

4.7. THE DEEPENING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAHĀPAJĀPATĪ GOTAMĪ AND THE BUDDHA, as well as

the evolution of the Vinaya (Discipline) to include compassion and communal equality.

Compassion and Equality in the Sangha

  1. The Gift of the Robe and the Merit of the Sangha

This event is recorded in the Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga Sutta (The Discourse on the Analysis of Offerings, Majjhima Nikāya 142).

  • The Act: Mahāpajāpatī hand-spun and wove a pair of exquisite robes specifically for the Buddha.
  • The Refusal: The Buddha’s refusal was not a rejection of her affection, but a profound teaching on impartiality. By asking her to offer the robe to the Sangha as a whole, he was elevating the merit of the gift from a personal favor to a universal act of devotion.
  • The Teaching: He explained that an offering to the community (Saṅghika-dāna) is more fruitful than an offering to an individual, even a Buddha, because it supports the continuity of the Dhamma through the entire

2.  The Amendment of the Rules for Compassion

The second event shows the Buddha’s pragmatism and care. When a rule prevented monks from visiting sick nuns, it created a barrier to communal support.

  • The Adjustment: Upon learning that his foster mother was ill and unattended by the monks, the Buddha personally visited
  • The Legacy: This act led to the amendment of the Vinaya, ensuring that the health and well-being of a monastic, regardless of gender, took precedence over rigid isolation It reinforces the idea that the Vinaya is a “living” code

designed to support the path, not to hinder compassion.

“After many years of ordination, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī applied herself to diligent practice, overcoming internal struggles and purifying her mind, which led to her ultimate enlightenment and liberation.

The scriptures recount that on one occasion, the foster mother had sewn a very precious and beautiful robe to offer to the Buddha. However, the Buddha declined to accept it personally and suggested that it would be best for her to offer it to the Sangha (the monastic community). Mahāpajāpatī was deeply disappointed. Out of concern for her welfare, Venerable Ānanda intervened. The Buddha explained that if she maintained a mind of equality and offered it to the community at large, her merit would be immeasurable and boundless because ‘the virtue of the community is like the ocean.’ He also intended this to serve as an example for those who wish to make similar offerings in the future. On that occasion, the Buddha preached the Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga Sutta (The Discourse on the Analysis of Offerings).

On another occasion, when Mahāpajāpatī was ill, no monks came to visit her because the disciplinary rules at the time forbade monks from visiting sick nuns. The Buddha himself adjusted this rule and personally went to visit her.”167

4.8.A LIFE OF MERIT AND MIRACLES

Throughout her 120-year life, she remained a pillar of the Sangha. The Buddha once declared her the foremost in seniority and experience among nuns. At her passing in Vaishali, it is recorded that she performed miracles to dispel any lingering doubts about the spiritual capacity of women. In Buddhist history, she is the only person besides the Buddha whose funeral was marked by such miraculous signs.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Vinaya Texts, Part III: 329–330.

4.9.CONCLUSION

Mahāpajāpatī Gotami was a pioneer for women’s rights long before the term existed. She recognized that the Buddha’s teachings offered the only path to true equality and liberation from the “shackles of slavery” (social and spiritual). Her legacy is a testament to the fact that spiritual greatness is determined by effort and wisdom, not by gender.

P.G. Women’s Hostel, Delhi, January 25, 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, VI, Sri Lanka, 2002.
  • The Buddha and His Teachings, Narada, Malaysia,

7.5. THE VALUE OF INTER-RELIGIOUS RELATIONS FOR GLOBAL SOCIETY

As we reflect on the final decade of the previous century, we witness a paradox of unprecedented destruction and unimaginable progress. History has seen both the most brutal loss of human life and the most significant breakthroughs in human welfare. We have seen the emergence of terrifying weaponry alongside the creative exploration of outer space. In our own lifetimes, scientific applications have raised the standard of living for millions beyond expectation, yet millions more still face daily hunger. Today, humanity confronts existential threats: nuclear testing, ozone depletion, deforestation, air and water pollution, food chain contamination, drug abuse, and the terrifying spread of infectious diseases.

5.1. TRANSITIONING TO A GLOBAL SOCIETY

It is clear that humanity is entering a new type of society, a transition even more significant than the shifts from caves to forests, or from industrial to post-industrial eras. We are witnessing the birth of a Global Society. We find ourselves momentarily off-balance in an existence defined by rapid change and immense challenges.

We live in a world submerged in a toxic legacy of conflict and deadly competition. The widening gap between developing and developed nations must give way to a new culture of convergence and cooperation. The promise of this new millennium is the potential to dissolve the chaos and conflict currently erupting in various parts of the world.

5.2.A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

To meet these challenges, we must develop structured, large- scale educational programs grounded in the clear premise of human existence. This involves the growth of a global consciousness rooted in love and creativity. These creative educational experiences can serve as a source of inspiration, guiding us toward a new educational philosophy based on mutual understanding among all religions.

The Evolution of the Inter-religious Movement

This need is directly linked to the inter-religious movement, which began in the modern era in 1893 at the first Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago, attended by 6,000 delegates. Throughout the 20th century, several organizations emerged to carry this torch, including the International Association for Religious Freedom, the World Council of Churches, and the United Religions Initiative.

Key milestones include:

  • 1993: The Second Parliament of the World’s Religions in

Chicago, marking the centennial anniversary.

  • 1999: The Third Parliament in Cape Town, South
  • 2000: A landmark event where the United Nations hosted the Millennium World Peace Summit for religious and spiritual leaders in the UN General Assembly

5.3. FROM THE PERIPHERY TO THE CENTER

Notably, while the inter-religious movement grew on a large scale in the 20th century, it remained essentially peripheral; it was not yet a central movement of human concern. In many ways, while temples, churches, mosques, and gurdwaras are being built with great devotion, the inter-religious movement itself often feels like an “orphan” with no home.

The question is not whether we will have a global society, but what kind of global society it will be. Will it be based on exploitation, crime, hatred, and fanaticism? Or will it be a healthy, harmonious global society based on inter-religious understanding and peaceful solutions? This remains the most burning question for religions today.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 7.6. CONFERENCE ON ‘BUDDHISM AND THE SPIRITUAL JOURNEY’

 IN NEW DELHI

From February 17–19, 2004, the Ministry of Tourism and Culture of India hosted an international conference titled “Buddhism and Spiritual Tourism” at the Vigyan Bhawan Hall in New Delhi. The event gathered 425 delegates from 25 countries, including religious leaders, government officials, philosophers,

and scholars.

Vietnamese representation was significant, with a delegation of 22 official representatives and observers, including:

  • Most Venerable Thich Thanh Tu (Standing Vice Chairman of the Executive Council).
  • Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang (Vice Chairman of the Executive Council).
  • Venerable Thich Giác Toàn and Venerable Thich Thien Nhon. Additionally, over 100 Vietnamese monks, nuns, and laypeople attended the conference and embarked on a pilgrimage to India’s sacred Buddhist

6.1.THE OPENING: A PRESIDENT’S VISION

The conference was officially opened by the President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. Although a Muslim, Dr. Kalam expressed his profound respect for the Buddhist principles of Compassion and Wisdom.

He cited Emperor Ashoka as the ultimate historical example: a ruler who traded conquest and bloodshed for the Path of Peace after witnessing the horrors of the Kalinga war. Dr. Kalam also highlighted Mahatma Gandhi’s application of Ahimsa (Non- violence) as a modern continuation of this spiritual legacy. As a nuclear scientist, Dr. Kalam noted that while India possesses nuclear weapons for defense, it would be the first to abolish them if global disarmament were achieved. 168

6.2. VIETNAMESE CONTRIBUTIONS AND PROPOSALS

 
  clip_image047.gif


Most Venerable Thich Thanh Tu emphasized that Buddhist ethics are the bedrock of a meaningful spiritual journey. He presented six strategic recommendations to the Indian Ministry

  • The speech was delivered by A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the 11th President of India (and a world-renowned scientist), during the inauguration of an international conference focused on the revitalizing of the ancient university

of Tourism and Culture to enhance pilgrimage experiences:

  1. Focus on the spiritual essence to build bridges of peace and economic development.
  2. Establish representative offices abroad to attract pilgrims while ensuring local security.
  3. Create a global information network for spiritual
  4. Invest in infrastructure at holy sites and protect the surrounding
  5. Simplify Passport and Visa
  6. Organize periodic pilgrimages with attractive promotional

6.3.  THE UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE CEREMONY

On February 19, the delegates flew to Bodh Gaya to visit the Mahabodhi Temple. The visit coincided with a historic ceremony marking the temple’s recognition by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. A stone slab engraved with “World Heritage Site by UNESCO” was unveiled in the presence of spiritual leaders from around the globe. The Indian Minister of Culture pledged to develop Bodh Gaya and Sārnāth into the world’s central hubs for Buddhism.

6.4.    CULTURAL EXCHANGE AT DELHI UNIVERSITY

Following the conference, the Vietnamese delegation visited the Department of Buddhist Studies at Delhi University. Most Venerable Dr. Satyapala, Head of the Department, noted with a smile that because of the overwhelming number of Vietnamese Master’s and PhD students (130 currently enrolled), the department is often affectionately called the “Department of Vietnamese Studies.”

 

Venerable Thich Tri Quang thanked the university for training over 20 Vietnamese PhDs and discussed the formation of a support fund to encourage student monks and nuns in their academic pursuits.

6.5.    CONCLUSION: THE JOURNEY CONTINUES

The conference concluded with a tea party at the President’s residence, Rashtrapati   Bhawan.   Delegates   expressed their gratitude for India’s hospitality and reaffirmed that in a globalized world, the “Spiritual Journey” remains a vital guide for tolerance and humanity.

To embark on a pilgrimage to India’s sacred sites is to walk a path of inner awakening. This journey does not end with a flight back home; it continues on the spiritual ladder of the heart.

Delhi, February 22, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.7. THE EIGHTH SAKYADHITA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

 IN SOUTH KOREA

Continuing the journey of the “Daughters of the Buddha,” the Eighth Sakyadhita International Conference was held in Seoul, South Korea, from June 27 to July 2, 2004.169 Following previous gatherings in Southeast and South Asian countries like India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Nepal, as well as East Asian Taiwan, this conference marked a significant meeting in a nation with a vibrant Mahayana tradition.

More than 415 monastics and laywomen from 30 countries attended, including eight Vietnamese nuns studying at Delhi

 
  clip_image047.gif

University and three others from the US and Australia. The venue was the state-of-the-art Central Sangha University in Gimpo, an institution dedicated to the intellectual and ethical cultivation of the Sangha under the Jogye Order.

7.1.A VISION OF EQUALITY AND RESILIENCE

The opening ceremony featured chanting from both traditions: Theravada monastics chanted the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in Pali, while Mahayana monastics chanted the Heart Sūtra in their respective native tongues.

In her opening remarks, Venerable Dr. Karma Lekshe Tsomo, President of Sakyadhita, praised the Korean Bhikṣuṇī Sangha for its leadership in social service and Buddhist research. Venerable Myeong-seong, Co-President, highlighted a powerful historical fact:

“Without the efforts of Buddhist women during the 500 years of the Joseon Dynasty’s harsh policies, Buddhism might have disappeared from the Korean peninsula.”

She emphasized that today’s women are not victims of discrimination but keepers of the Dharma lamp, a sentiment echoed by the South Korean Minister of Culture and Tourism, who praised the level of equality found within Korean monastic traditions.

7.2.   CULTURAL IMMERSION AND HERITAGE

 
  clip_image047.gif


Participants were treated to powerful traditional Korean drumming and bell performances. The group also toured the Gyeongbokgung Palace,170 built in 1395, and the National

  • According to historical records, in the 25th year of King Seonjo’s reign (1592), the palace was destroyed during the Japanese invasion. It was reconstructed in the fifth year of King Gojong’s reign (1868), and King Gojong moved here from Changdeokgung Palace in July of that year.

During the 1950 conflict, most of the 200 buildings within the Gyeongbokgung Palace grounds were destroyed, leaving only about ten structures, including the Geunjeongjeon (the main throne hall) and the Gyeonghoeru (the royal banquet

Museum of Korea, which showcases the evolution of life on the peninsula from the prehistoric era through the Joseon Dynasty.

A particularly touching visit was to the Beob Ryong Sa Central Bhikṣuṇī Sangha Institute, where Venerable Myeong-seong hosted a dinner and gifted each participant a silk scroll featuring the poem “Wisdom”:

“From the green mountains, I learned to live without words.

From the clear sky,

I learned to live without sin.

Letting go of anger, letting go of greed, Like flowing water, like blowing wind, I learned to live just so.”

7.3.     CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS: DISCIPLINE AND PRACTICE

The theme was “Discipline and Practice of Buddhist Women: Past and Present.” Across six days, 57 papers were presented, covering topics such as:

  • Global Community: Cross-cultural healing and inter- religious dialogue.
  • Korean Nuances: The role of women in Korean social welfare, media (TV/Radio), and the history of the Jogye
  • Global Movements: The revival of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha in Sri Lanka and
 
  clip_image060.gif

pavilion).

Gyeongbokgung Palace is rectangular in shape, featuring four main gates at the south, north, east, and west directions. Since 1990, the South Korean government has been restoring the entire palace complex.”

  • Modern Challenges: Bioethics, domestic Dharma practice, and teaching Buddhism in Western
  • The Vietnamese Perspective: Venerable Nhu Nguyet presented on “Education of Vietnamese Nuns in the Modern Era,” while the author (Venerable Gioi Huong) presented on “Women and Buddhist ”

7.4. THE SECRET TO SUCCESS

This eighth conference was regarded as one of the most successful due to:

Infrastructure: The modern facilities of Central Sangha University.

Human Resources: The meticulous organization and hospitality of the Korean Jogye Order and local lay supporters (Bosals).

National Support: Active participation from the Korean government and extensive media coverage, with 25 news outlets reporting on the event daily.

7.5.CONCLUSION

As the conference concluded on July 7, 2004, the “Daughters of the Buddha” departed with a renewed sense of global sisterhood. The next meeting was set for 2006 in Malaysia, carrying forward the momentum of the Korean spirit, a blend of deep Zen stillness and vibrant, youth-led social engagement.

Seoul, South Korea, July 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

7.8. THE BUDDHA’S SYMPHONY

OF ABSOLUTE SILENCE: BUDDHIST EVENTS IN INDIA (2003)

Inheriting the spirit of compassion and wisdom, Buddhism stands as one of the most progressive civilizations, promoting peace and human solidarity. The “Absolute Silence” of the Buddha’s symphony is not an absence of sound, but the profound harmony of spiritual transformation. The year 2003 was a landmark for Buddhist revival in India, characterized by significant events and the involvement of global leaders.

8.1.  THE MAHA BODHI SOCIETY OF INDIA

Founded by Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala in 1891, the Society continues to be a central pillar for Buddhist affairs. In 2003, it organized the 2547th Buddha Purnima (Vesak) celebrations across several key locations:

  • Kolkata: At the Sri Dharmarajika Chetiya, Buddhist relics were exhibited. Swami Prabhananda of the Ramakrishna Mission attended as a guest of honor, emphasizing that the Buddha’s teachings remain the definitive path to
  • Bodh Gaya: Following its recent recognition as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Mahabodhi Temple hosted grand ceremonies and international meditation retreats.
  • Sārnāth: Celebrations at the Mulagandha  Kuti Vihara included a lecture by Venerable Nawang Samten. The evening was marked by the chanting of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta amidst thousands of colorful lights and floral garlands.
  • New Delhi: A vibrant parade featured a float with a statue of the infant Devotees in white robes followed the

procession through the capital, chanting the Buddha’s name.

The President’s Visit

On May 31, 2003, President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam visited Bodh Gaya. A scientist and a Muslim, Dr. Kalam spoke movingly about the synergy between science and Buddhism:

“The Buddha was a great scientist who discovered the truth for the good of mankind. Science also searches for truth to bring welfare and peace. I am like Ananda, you can call me ‘Chota Ananda,’ seeking questions and receiving radiance.”

8.2.   RESTORATION OF AJANTA AND ELLORA CAVES

 

 
  clip_image138.jpg

 

A spiritual journey to the past: Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương with

pilgrims amidst the ancient carvings of Ellora, 1998.

 

A significant preservation effort was launched with a low-interest loan of 300 crore Rupees from a Japanese bank to restore the Ajanta and Ellora Caves.

  • Ajanta: These 1,600-year-old caves contain breathtaking

frescoes and rock-cut statues depicting the Jataka tales.

  • Ellora: Spanning the 7th–13th centuries, these caves feature a mix of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain artistry. Experts are currently using advanced chemicals to save frescoes from moisture damage and darkening, while the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation plans a new Oriental Museum at the site.

8.3.   DISCOVERIES IN BANGLADESH AND TRIPURA

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) uncovered significant ruins in Boxanagar, near the Bangladesh-Tripura border. The discovery of a massive brick stupa confirms that Buddhism flourished in this region from the 7th to the 14th centuries.

8.4.   LADAKH AND THE SINDHU DARSHAN

The Sindhu Darshan Festival in Leh, Ladakh (May 31, 2003), brought together the Indian Council of Religious Leaders. Scholars emphasized that non-violence is a far more potent weapon than nuclear arms—a message of “Unity in Diversity” born from the banks of the Indus River.

8.5.   SĀRNĀTH: DIPLOMATIC AND SPIRITUAL HUB

Sārnāth hosted several high-profile pilgrims in 2003:

  • His Holiness the Dalai Lama: Preached and meditated before the Dhamekh Stupa.
  • Ambassador Tran Trong Khanh (Vietnam): Visited the Dhammapala Museum and noted with joy a portrait of President Ho Chi Minh displayed there.
  • Thai Delegation: 1,000 members of the Mahamongkalehai Foundation conducted a three-day meditation retreat and donated gifts to local poor
  • Okinawa Peace Group: A group from Japan visited to

receive a Bodhi sapling to be planted at the Okinawa Peace Prayer Monument, honoring those lost in WWII.

8.6.  CULTURAL EXPANSION: THE WORLD’S LARGEST MANDALA

In celebration of 50 years of friendship between India and Japan, a massive Mandala (Thangka) was exhibited. This work, valued at $4 million USD, measures 70m x 50m and weighs 2,000 kg. It was created over five years by 10,000 artists from 16 countries.

8.7.   RELIGIOUS MILESTONES IN ANDHRA PRADESH

On April 6, 2003, the Dalai Lama inaugurated the Ananda Buddha Vihara in Secunderabad. Master Hsing Yun (Fo Guang Shan, Taiwan) attended, placing a foundation stone for a new stupa. This event marked a historic reconnection between Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka, symbolized by the planting of a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi tree.

8.8. NEW DELHI: THE WORLD’S LARGEST MANDALA

  • Event: Exhibition of a giant cloth Mandala (Thangka) marking the 50th anniversary of Japan-India
  • Specifications: * Size: 70m x 50m (Weight: 2,000 kg).
    • Value: 3–4 million
    • Craftsmanship: Created over 5 years by 10,000 artisans from 16 countries.
  • Purpose: To depict the life of the Buddha. Most Ven. D.S. Uchida expressed the intent to bring the work to India and Nalanda to honor the roots of Buddhism.

8.9 LUCKNOW: SOCIAL EQUALITY & COMMEMORATION

  • Event: Birthday celebration of Km. Mayawati (Former

Governor of Uttar Pradesh) on January 15, 2003.

  • Key Message: She emphasized the Buddhist history of Kaushambi and Lucknow.
  • Social Justice: As a devout Buddhist, she vowed to lead 250,000 people to fight for the rights of lower castes, citing the Buddha’s teachings on equality.

8.10.   MAHARASHTRA: WORLD PEACE DISCUSSIONS

  • Event: World Peace seminar at Dragon Palace, Kamptee (Nagpur) on November 8, 2003.
  • Collaboration: Supported by the Ogawa Society of Japan and chaired by Ms. Sulekha

8.11.  TRANSITIONS & MEMORIALS

The year 2003 marked the passing of several influential figures in the Indian Buddhist landscape:

Name

Role / Significance

Date of

Passing

Most Ven. Kushok Bakula

Supreme Head of Ladakh Buddhism; Indian Ambassador to Mongolia.

Nov 2,

2003

Ms. Savita Ambedkar

Social activist and second wife of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (reviver of

20th-century Indian Buddhism) in Mumbai.

2003

8.12.  ACADEMIC & LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS

The report concludes by recognizing the proliferation of Buddhist scholarship and media during this period:

  • Key Publications:
    • The Maha Bodhi (Kolkata)
  • Dharmadoot (Sārnāth)
  • Sambodhi (Bodh Gaya)
  • Buddha Vacana Trust (Bangalore)
  • Academic Support: Contributions from the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies in Sārnāth and various private publishers were instrumental in spreading the Dharma across India in 2003.

Delhi, December 02, 2003

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Maha Bodhi Society of India (Kolkata & Sārnāth)
  • Dhammadoot, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Mulagandhakuty Vihara, Sarnath – The Birth Place of Buddhism,

 7.9. CHRONOLOGY OF KOREAN BUDDHISM

9.1.  THETHREEKINGDOMSPERIOD(INTRODUCTION)

Buddhism entered the peninsula from China and harmoniously integrated with indigenous Shamanic beliefs.

  • Koguryo (372 AD): King Soh Soo Rim invited Monk Soon Doh from The philosophy of Cause and Effect (“You reap what you sow”) gained rapid royal and public support.171
  • Paekje (384 AD): The Indian monk Marananda brought Buddhism to the This kingdom played a pivotal role in transmitting the faith and arts (pottery, architecture, and

      tea ceremony) to Japan.

  • Guide to Korean Buddhist Temple, International Dharma Instructors Association, Jogye Order Publishing, 1995, p.14.
  • Silla (527 AD): Buddhism was officially recognized much later than the other two, but eventually became the unifying cultural force of the peninsula.

9.2.   THE UNIFIED SILLA PERIOD (THE GOLDEN AGE)

After 668 AD, Buddhism became the central pillar of a unified Korean identity.

  • Intellectual Giants: Monk Wonhyo (One-Vehicle philosophy) and Monk Uisang (Avatamsaka studies).
  • Artistic Masterpieces: This era produced the world- renowned Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple.
  • Core Sūtras: The Surangama Sūtra and the Lotus Sūtra

became foundational texts.

9.3.      THE GORYEO DYNASTY (DEVELOPMENT OF SEON)

  • Rise of Seon (Zen): The “Nine Mountains of Son” emerged, introducing a new meditative focus.
  • The Woodblock Canon: Monk Uich brought 4,000 scriptures from China, leading to the creation of the Korean Tripitaka, carved on woodblocks, a monumental feat of
  • Chinul & Taego: Master Chinul established the meditation center at Songgwang-sa, and Master T’aego unified the nine schools into the Chogye Order, which remains the primary sect

9.4.       THE CHOSON DYNASTY (SUPPRESSION AND RESILIENCE)

The state shifted support to Neo-Confucianism, leading to the “Era of Suppression.”

  • Exile to the Mountains: Temples were banned from cities

and destroyed, forcing monastics into the secluded mountain valleys where most famous temples remain today.172

  • National Salvation: Despite suppression, monks like Sosan and Samyong led “monk armies” to defend the country during the 16th-century Japanese

9.5.    MODERN ERA (PURIFICATION AND REVIVAL)

  • Post-1945: A “Purification Movement” sought to restore the celibate monastic tradition after the Japanese colonial
  • Cultural Identity: Today, Buddhism is a “living culture.” Even non-Buddhists in Korea live by customs and values rooted in Buddhist history.

References:

  • What is Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Chorgye Order, Chorgye Order Publishing,
  • Guide to Korean Buddhist Temple, International Dharma Instructors Association, Jogye Order Publishing,
  • A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History, Andrew C. Nahm, Hollym Corporation, USA,

 7.10. THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN TEMPLES

 
  clip_image047.gif


Buddhist temples and monasteries in Korea are spiritual sanctuaries representing the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha). They serve as places for accumulating merit, shedding negative karma, and practicing the teachings of the Buddha.

  • What is Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Chorgye Order, Chorgye Order Publishing, 2002, p.34.

10.1.   ETYMOLOGY AND SPIRITUAL PURPOSE

In Korean, the word for temple is “jeol”. While it sounds like the English word “purl,” its deeper spiritual connotation is “to bow.” Those who visit do not come as mere tourists for entertainment, but as practitioners seeking inner peace, lightening the burden of their afflictions through reverence to the Triple Gem.

10.2.   NATURAL HARMONY AND SECLUSION

A striking feature of Korean temples is their location, nestled deep within mountain valleys, surrounded by lush forests and crystalline streams.173

  • Historical Context: This seclusion dates back to the Choson Dynasty (1392), when the state favored Neo-Confucianism and banned temples from urban areas.
  • The Atmosphere: The journey to the temple is as significant as the destination. Visitors pass through romantic paths of falling golden leaves and the sound of rustling trees, helping the mind transition from the “narrow world” of daily life into the “vast world” of the Buddha.

10.3.         SYMBOLIC    ARCHITECTURE:    THE    THREE GATES

Most temples follow a specific sequence of entrance gates, each with deep symbolic meaning:

  • One-Pillar Gate (Iljumun): Tượng trưng cho sự nhất tâm (One Mind).
 
  clip_image047.gif
  • “Following the collapse of the Goryeo Dynasty in 1392, the Joseon Dynasty ascended to power and championed Neo-Confucianism. During this long period, the government ordered that Buddhist temples not be built near urban areas and demolished existing temples within the cities. This is one of the primary reasons why most Korean temples are located in the outskirts or mountainous regions today.”

– Excerpt from “What is Korean Buddhism,” Korean Buddhist Jogye Order, Jogye Order Publishing, 2002, page 35.

  • Four Heavenly Kings Gate (Cheonwangmun): Guarded by the protectors of the Dharma.
  • Gate of Non-Duality (Purimun): Signifying the ultimate reality where there is no distinction between self and

10.4.         PROMINENT    NATIONAL   TREASURES    AND WORLD HERITAGE SITES

 

Temple Name

Representation

Outstanding Features

Haeinsa Temple

Dharma Jewel

(The Teachings)

Preserves the Tripitaka Koreana, consisting of 81,340 woodblocks.

Bulguksa Temple

Buddha Jewel (The Awakened One)

Features exquisite stone architecture; a symbol of the Silla Golden Age.

 

Unmunsa Temple

 

Sangha Jewel

(The Community)

The largest Bhikṣuṇī (Nuns) Buddhist College; a place of rigorous monastic discipline.

Bongeunsa Temple

 

Cultural Heritage

An ancient temple situated in the heart of modern-day Seoul.
  • NOTABLE TEMPLES AND THEIR LEGACIES Bongeun-sa (Seoul)

A major monastery located in the heart of the Gangnam district. Founded in 794 during the Unified Silla period, it is a center for the Jogye Order. It is famous174 for:

  • Over 3,000 woodblock carvings of scriptures, including the

Avatamsaka Sūtra.175

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. What is Korean Buddhism, Korean Buddhist Chorgye Order, Chorgye Order Publishing, 2002, p. 140.
  • Tripitaka Koreana (Bát Vạn Đại Tạng Kinh), the collection of over 81,000
  • The 23-meter Maitreya Buddha, the tallest outdoor statue of its kind in Korea.

ii. Suknam-sa (Ulsan)

Known as a premier training center for Bhikṣuṇī s (nuns). Located on the Suckahn mountain, it is renowned for its strict meditation practice and the exceptional temple cuisine prepared by the resident nuns.

iii. Haein-sa (South Gyeongsang)

A UNESCO World Heritage site representing the Dharma Jewel. It houses the Tripitaka Koreana (Goryeo Palman Daejang-gyeong).

  • The Artifact: 81,340 woodblocks carved with over 52 million characters.
  • The Craft: The wood was soaked in seawater for three years, boiled, and dried for another three years to ensure its longevity over centuries.176

iv. Unmun-sa (Cheongdo)

The largest Bhikṣuṇī Buddhist College in South Korea. It is a scenic masterpiece surrounded by clouds and mountains. Notable for:

  • A 500-year-old weeping pine tree that spreads like a giant
  • The rigorous academic and manual labor curriculum for

      young nuns includes making kimchi and sewing robes.

wooden printing blocks housed at Haeinsa Temple.

While some sources suggest the Tripitaka Koreana was carved by a single individual–citing the uncanny uniformity of the calligraphy—the sheer scale of 52 million characters makes this physically impossible. Instead, it stands as a masterpiece of collective discipline, where hundreds of carvers adhered so strictly to a single calligraphic style that their individual identities merged into a unified spiritual effort.

  • Tripitaka Korea, Haein-sa, Chogye Order, 2004, 1.

v.Bulguksa and Seokguram Grotto (Gyeongju)

Also, UNESCO World Heritage sites represent the “Golden Age” of Silla art.

  1. Bulguksa: Features the Dabotap (Pagoda of Many Treasures) and the Seokgatap (Sakyamuni Pagoda), both national
  • Seokguram Grotto: A man-made stone cave housing a magnificent Buddha statue looking toward the East Sea, acclaimed as one of the most beautiful Buddhist carvings in the

Delhi, July 19 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.11. THE BUDDHIST BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA OF KOREA

Although Buddhism was introduced to Korea over 1,600 years ago, the official history of Korean Buddhism contains relatively few records regarding the activities of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha (the community of nuns).

In reality, however, nuns played a vital role in propagating the Dharma during the early stages of history. Through the eras of the Three Kingdoms (37 BC – 668 AD), Unified Silla (668– 935), Goryeo (918–1392), Joseon (1392–1910), and into the modern era, Buddhism has continued to be maintained and developed. Depending on the local context, the position, role, and manifestation of nuns within Buddhism have been diverse and adaptable to circumstances.

  • THE BHIKṢUṆĪ    SANGHA    IN    THE    THREE KINGDOMS PERIOD (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla)

Korean Buddhist history records Sunim Sa Morye as the first

Bhikṣuṇī (“Sunim” is a Korean honorific for monks and nuns) who effectively supported Master Ado in introducing Buddhism to the Silla Kingdom. Eight years after Buddhism was officially accepted, the Queen of King Beopheung, admiring Sa Morye’s virtue, built Yeongheung Temple as an offering. She later ordained as Sunim Myobop, becoming the first Bhikṣuṇī of the Silla Sangha.

The Samguk-sagi (Annals of the Three Kingdoms) notes that King Jinheung took refuge in the Triple Gem and received the Dharma name Beop Un. His Queen also ordained as the Bhikṣuṇī Bopun and practiced at Yeongheung Temple. Following her example, many other women entered the monastic life. Additionally, Lady Jiso, the wife of Prime Minister Kim Yu-si, became a nun after her husband’s passing. 177

During the reign of King Jinpyong (681–692), a Chinese master from the Sui Dynasty, Won Gwang, organized the Juhm-chal ceremony in Korea. A Bhikṣuṇī donated significant land to support this Buddhist work. Records also mention a Bhikṣuṇī physician who healed the National Master Gyeong Heung during the reign of King Sin Mun.

In a significant event highlighting the importance of nuns, King Jinheung appointed Master Hyeryang of Goguryeo as the National Master and the Bhikṣuṇī Ani as the Elder (Head) of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha.178

The history of the Baekje Kingdom also notes the active role of nuns. In 577 AD, King Wideok dispatched a Bhikṣuṇī to Japan to teach the Dharma. Furthermore, the Nihonshoki (Chronicles

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • According to Volume 3 of the ‘Annals of the Three Kingdoms,’ the Queen of King Beop-heung established Yeong-heung This historical detail

is cited in ‘Activities of Korean Buddhist Nuns: An Historical Review’ by Gyehwan Sunim, presented at the 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women in Korea (2004), page 34.

  • History of the Three Kingdoms, 43, Yeol Joen 3, Gim Yusin, vol.2; p.34.

of Japan) records that in 588, three Korean nuns became the first to receive ordination in Japan under Master Hye Pyeon; they later returned to Baekje to study the Vinaya (monastic law) for three years. These accounts demonstrate the proactive mission of Bhikṣuṇī s in spreading the Dharma and healing the suffering.179

11.2.    THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA IN THE GORYEO DYNASTY

Inheriting the traditions of the Three Kingdoms, the Goryeo Dynasty saw many royals take monastic vows, such as Queen Yeon after the death of King Gong Min. Nuns such as Seong Hyo (1255–1324), Jong Min, and Cheong Won participated in three-month summer retreats (Vassa) at Su Seon Temple and were issued certificates by National Master Hye Sim. These certificates displayed the refined calligraphic styles of the era.

In 1381, a virtuous and exceptionally talented Bhikṣuṇī emerged, converting many to Buddhism. The nun Manbuhoi worked alongside monks to spread the Dharma, encouraging practitioners to recite the Buddha’s name and chant Sūtras (such as the Diamond, Avatamsaka, and Amitabha Sūtras) to find peace and fearlessness at the moment of death.

By the end of the Goryeo period, the Bhikṣuṇī Myo Deok sponsored the printing of The Analects of Baekunhwasang using woodblocks, a landmark moment in the history of printing technology.

11.3.    THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA IN THE JOSEON DYNASTY

Unlike previous eras, the Joseon Dynasty adopted Confucianism as its ruling ideology. Buddhism gradually lost social and

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • Gim Yeongtae, Ordination of Bhikkhuni, Playpeople and Official Priests, Seoul: Korea Culture and Won Buddhism Ideology; 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women, Korea, 2004, Ibid, 34.

political influence and faced severe discrimination. During King Sejong’s reign, women were forbidden from visiting temples, and monks were barred from visiting the homes of widows.

Despite this, women remained devoted to Buddhism. King Taejong once lamented that although he forbade noblewomen from performing Buddhist rites, they continued to chant, keep precepts, and pray for their families’ longevity.180 Throughout the Joseon era, women, from commoners to royalty, served as the “catalyst” for Buddhism’s survival, acting as intermediaries between the temples and the royal court. Even when famous nunneries like Jasu Won and Insu Won were destroyed, and nuns were expelled from the capital, they continued to donate rice and funds to maintain the faith. 181

11.4.        THE MODERN ERA

Today, nuns are the lifeblood and strength of Korean Buddhism. They constitute 70% to 80% of the total monastic population. In the Jogye Order, approximately half of the 16,000 fully ordained monastics are Bhikṣuṇīs.182

Modern Korean nuns play a vital role in society. Many hold Master’s and Doctoral degrees, teaching at Buddhist colleges and Dongguk University. Over 100 nuns have graduated from the Dharma propagation course at Namjang Temple, bringing new vitality to the Sangha. The establishment of the Buddhist Women’s Development Institute (affiliated with Sakyadhita) symbolizes the solid commitment of Korean women to contributing to both Buddhism and society.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  • ‘Quotations of National Master Chogye Jingak’, Korea Buddhism Compendium 6, 28:1; ibid. p. 35.
  • Activities of Korean Buddhist Nuns: An Historical Review, Gyehwan Sunim; 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women, Korea, 2004, p.32.
  • 42 Seonsa Banghamrok o Temple Visistors’Book, National Temple Association, 2003; Ibid, p. 35.

With over 30 meditation centers specifically for nuns and the establishment of the Beob Ryong Sa Bhikṣuṇī College in 2003, the community continues to build a society rooted in compassion.

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, June 20, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References

  • Kwangwu Sunim, Discipline and Practice of Buddhist Women: Past and Present, 8th Sakyadhita Conference, Korea,
  • Gyehwan Sunim, Activities of Korean Buddhist Nuns: An

Historical Review, 8th Sakyadhita Conference, Korea, 2004.

  • Andrew Nahm, A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean

History, Hollym Corp, 1989.

 7.12.   WOMEN AND BUDDHIST PRECEPTS

Paper presented at the Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women, held in Seoul, South Korea, June 29, 2004.

In Eastern patriarchal societies, the role of women has often been regarded as inferior to that of men; however, such prejudice is unacceptable in a civilized society. The Buddha was the first great teacher to recognize the potential of women, creating opportunities for them to develop their spiritual capabilities and social contributions.183

 
  clip_image047.gif


Following his enlightenment, the Buddha initially hesitated to

  1. Vinaya Pitaka, II, Pali Text Society, p. 256.

teach, a period known as his “silence.” Similarly, women were not initially permitted to join the Sangha. It was through the persistent pleas of Venerable Ananda and Mahāpajāpatī Gotami that the door was opened. Upon Ananda’s assurance of their spiritual capacity, Mahāpajāpatī Gotami accepted the Eight Respectful Rules (Garudhammas), and the Buddha permitted her, along with 500 noblewomen, to join the Sangha. The Eight Rules are as follows:

A Bhikṣuṇī, even if ordained for 100 years, must respect, greet, and behave appropriately toward a Bhikṣu ordained for only a single day.

A Bhikṣuṇī must not spend the rainy season retreat in a residence where there are no Bhikṣus.

Every fortnight, the Bhikṣuṇī community must ask the Bhikṣu Sangha for the date of the Uposatha and the time for exhortation.

After the rainy season retreat, a Bhikṣuṇī must perform the Pavarana (inviting criticism) before both the Bhikṣu and Bhikṣuṇī Sanghas.

A Bhikṣuṇī who commits a grave offense must undergo the

Manatta discipline for half a month before both Sanghas.

After training in the six precepts for two years as a Sikkhamana, she must seek higher ordination (Upasampada) before both Sanghas.

A Bhikṣuṇī must not abuse or criticize a Bhikṣu for any reason.

A Bhikṣuṇī is not permitted to admonish a Bhikṣu, but a Bhikṣu is permitted to admonish a Bhikṣuṇī.

 
  clip_image047.gif


In the monastic discipline, these laws are strictly observed. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya184 compares these eight rules to

  1. Dharmagupta (S): Known in Vietnamese as Đàm-vô-đức or Pháp Mật bộ. A Great Master who played a vital role in propagating the Dhamma during the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd Century BCE.

a bridge over a great river, allowing practitioners to reach the other shore of liberation. Many scriptures record that all 500 original Bhikṣuṇī s achieved peace and liberation. The Buddha established specific precepts and ordination rituals for the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha, requiring a dual-ordination process: first within the Bhikṣuṇī order, then confirmed by the Bhikṣu order.185

Nuns carry greater responsibilities through their higher ordination. In the Pali Vinaya, there are 227 precepts for monks, while there are 311 precepts for nuns, organized into seven sections. (Note: The Dharmaguptaka version used in China, Korea, and Vietnam counts 250 for monks and 348 for nuns).

While historical records of women in early Buddhism represent about 16.2% of total cases mentioned, this indicates that while the Buddha opened the doors, social attitudes toward women shifted slowly. Nevertheless, many nuns excelled in various fields. Primary sources such as the Apadana, Anguttara-Nikaya, and Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns) detail their efforts to attain Nirvana.

By establishing the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha, Mahāpajāpatī Gotami provided a path for even the most unfortunate and suffering women to find liberation. The Buddha famously declared: “If you can leave the household life, you can become like the Bhikṣuṇīs Khema and Uppalavanna.”

The Legend of Khemā: From Queen to Chief Disciple

  1. Past Lives of Merit

The text highlights her consistent devotion through various world cycles (Kalpas):

  • Padmottara Buddha: She began her journey as a devoted
 
  clip_image060.gif

The Dharmaguptaka, a Buddhist school noted for its Vinaya (Four-Part Vinaya), which eventually became the foundational disciplinary code for Buddhism in Vietnam, China, and Korea.”

185 Vinaya Pitaka, vol. II, Pali Text Society, p. 275.

lay supporter.

  • Kassapa (Ca-diếp) Buddha: Born as Samani, daughter of King Kiki, she maintained a life of purity and built a
  • Vipassī (Tỳ-Bà-Thi) Buddha: She served as a gifted preacher of the Dhamma.
  • Kakusandha and Konāgamana Buddhas: She continued her massive charitable works, constructing great

2.  In the Time of Shakyamuni Buddha

  • Status: She was born into the royalty of Sāgala and became the chief consort of King Bimbisāra (Bình-sa-vương).
  • The Transformation: Khemā was famously proud of her physical Knowing the Buddha taught the “impurity” of the body, she avoided him. King Bimbisāra, a devoted follower, lured her to the Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) monastery by describing its natural beauty.

3.  The Lesson on Impermanence

To humble her, the Buddha used his psychic powers (Abhiññā) to manifest a celestial maiden of unparalleled beauty standing beside him. As Khemā watched, the Buddha aged the vision in seconds:

  • Youthful Beauty: Initially mesmerizing Khemā.
  • Middle Age: Fading vitality.
  • Old Age: Wrinkled skin, toothless, and gray-haired.
  • Death: Eventually collapsing into a heap of

This visual demonstration of Anicca (Impermanence) shattered her vanity, leading to her enlightenment.

“Those who are slaves to lust and craving,

Are like a spider caught in the web it has spun for itself.

The wise, having severed these bonds, depart from the world, Free from anxiety and leaving all sorrow behind.” (Dhammapada, verse 347)

Uppalavanna: Born to a wealthy merchant in Sravasti, her beauty was like a blue lotus. After experiencing worldly suffering and betrayal, she entered the monastic life and achieved great psychic powers and wisdom through intense meditation.

Throughout history, the lineage spread globally. In the 3rd century BC, Sanghamitra, daughter of Emperor Ashoka, established the Bhikṣuṇī order in Sri Lanka. According to the legend, Princess Hemamala brought the Buddha’s tooth relic to the island. In the 11th century, Queen Kumaradevi of Varanasi renovated Buddha statues and built grand monasteries for nuns at Sārnāth.

From ancient times to the 11th century, the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha thrived in Sri Lanka and was transmitted to China, which allows for the modern revival of the lineage in South and Southeast Asia today, including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Tibet, Korea, China, Japan, and Vietnam.

In the history of Vietnam, great Bhikṣuṇī s such as Dam Soan, Dieu Khong, Hai Trieu Am, Nhu Thanh, and Huynh Lien have played active roles in education, culture, and social charity. Today, women leaders across the globe are establishing monasteries and research centers to restore moral values in a declining society.

The fundamental challenge today is how men and women adapt to a new social order dominated by apathy and violence. Modern civilization encourages analytical thinking, but often at the cost

of moral values. There is an urgent need for a social structure that supports spiritual life, protects human rights, and restores cultural traditions.

Ultimately, we must realize the concept of gender equality. The Buddha did not distinguish between the intellectual and spiritual capacities of men and women. The presence of women from over 30 countries here at the 8th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women in Korea is clear evidence of the positive and powerful influence of women in the Buddhist world today.

Kam-sa-ham-nida (Thank you).

Song-bul-ha-ship-si-o (May we all attain Buddhahood).

Presented in the Conference

in Seoul, South Korea, June 29, 2004.

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 7.13.THE INTERNATIONAL INTERFAITH MOVEMENT

The year 1993 marked the centenary of the Parliament of the World’s Religions (originally held in Chicago in 1893). This milestone represented a significant turning point in the International Interfaith Movement, succeeded by conferences that have effectively brought diverse faiths together at a single table.

Dr. George Carey, the Archbishop of Canterbury, stated at the

Sarva-Dharma Sammelana in Bangalore:

“In our contemporary world, we must be deeply conscious of the persistence of injustice, war, hunger, and environmental

 

damage; we must also be aware of the many ways in which religion can be misused to sustain dissent. My hope is to help religions work together for a common purpose for all.” 186

In Delhi, the former Prime Minister of India, Shri P.V. Narasimha Rao, emphasized the importance of friendship between members of different religions as a vital contribution to national harmony.187

The Chicago conference, themed “Declaration Toward a Global Ethic,” recognized the tragic state of the world:

“Peace eludes us… the planet is an embodiment of destruction… neighbors live in fear… children die of hunger.”188

t concluded that a foundation for a global ethic is necessary to empower individuals to become better and to establish a more orderly world.

The hope of interfaith cooperation is to bridge the divisions of the world. This vision was present in the minds of the participants of the first 1893 Parliament. Charles Bonney, President of the Parliament, believed that the Golden Rule could serve as a foundation for interfaith members to recognize one another as brothers in one great family. “Only then,” he said, “will the peoples of the earth bring a spirit of harmony, and war shall be no more.”189

13.1.   PIONEERS AND OBJECTIVES

The interfaith movement was driven by pioneers such as Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala (who restored Buddhism in 20th-century India), Swami Vivekananda (the renowned Hindu philosopher), and Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (the

  1. In Visions of an Interfaith Future, Ed Celia vµ David International Interfaith centre,1994, p. 14.
  2. Visions of an Interfaith Future, 223 229.
  3. A Global Ethic, Ed. Hans Kung vµ Karl - Josef KuscheL SCM Ed press pp.13-16.
  4. Marcus Braybrooke trong Pilgrimage of Hope, SCM press P. 13.

Indian philosopher-statesman). The Parliament’s work aims to improve several key areas190:

  1. Preventing Misuse: Ensuring religion is not used to fuel political agendas or violence.
  2. Rejecting Exclusivity: No religion should claim an exclusive monopoly on truth or salvation. One should not cling to narrow interpretations that lead to useless division.
  3. Eliminating Fanaticism: Removing extremism and
  4. Dispelling Prejudice: Christian believers, for instance, should cease blaming Jewish people for the death of
  5. Encouraging Dialogue: Promoting meetings between followers of different faiths, especially among the youth, to foster moral and spiritual
  6. Re-evaluating Attitudes: Rethinking one’s stance toward other religions.
  7. Correcting Misperceptions: Addressing the Western media’s misjudgment of Islam.
  8. Respecting Faith: Avoiding the proselytization of those already committed to a faith.

13.2.   THE EVOLUTION OF DIALOGUE

Prior to the 1980s, interfaith friendship grew through increasing participation at local, national, and international levels. Faith communities began working together for peace, justice, and the alleviation of suffering, even praying and meditating together. By 1993, this had become a mainstay of religious discourse.

 
  clip_image047.gif


In the following decade, interfaith unity expanded globally. Today, fourteen organizations are part of the International

  1. Towards A Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor Dr. T.D.Singh, 7-10 December 2003, New Delhi, pp. 10-20.

Interfaith Network, supported by the International Interfaith Centre in Oxford. The 2004 Parliament of the World’s Religions in Barcelona, Spain, served as a major opportunity for these communities to demonstrate their common purpose to the world.

These conferences have also influenced politicians, business leaders, and economists. They have recognized that an ethical and spiritual approach is required to solve the major issues plaguing modern society.

  • 1999: Conferences on spiritual values and “Globalization for the Common Good.”
  • 2000 (Dubai): The “World Development Dialogue” brought World Bank representatives and religious leaders
  • Recent: The World Economic Forum and the UK government’s foreign policy initiatives have begun inviting religious scholars to participate.

13.3.        CONCLUSION:    SELF-POWER    AND    OTHER- POWER

Perhaps the most notable event was the Millennium World Peace Summit at the United Nations, where numerous religious leaders met. Unlike the UN summit, which was a meeting of leaders, the subsequent Parliaments included ordinary citizens and experts from all walks of life.

We must work and pray together, Self-power (Tự lực) and Other-power (Tha lực). These two are inseparable. When we are sensitive to and deeply penetrate our own essence and life, we will naturally strive to serve the world. These interfaith dialogues are “flashes of hope” that transform dreams into new attitudes and activities, uniting us in building a better world.

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, July 4, 2004

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

References:

  • Towards A Culture of Harmony and Peace, Dr. T.D. Singh, New Delhi, 2003.
  • Unity in Diversity (Thoughts of the World’s Great Religions),

O.P. Ghai, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.

7.14. THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BHIKṢUṆĪ SANGHA IN INDIA

The establishment of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha (Order of Nuns) was a revolutionary milestone in the history of religion. While the Buddha initially focused on the Bhikṣu Sangha, his eventual acceptance of women into the monastic fold challenged the rigid patriarchal and caste-based structures of ancient Indian society.191

14.1. THE SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONTEXT

In ancient India, the caste system, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, strictly dictated social worth, and women were largely viewed as subordinate to men. However, the ideal of the “ascetic life” existed even before Buddhism. Historical records from the Vedas and Jainism show that female ascetics were already a presence; for example, the Svetambara sect of Jainism reportedly had 36,000 female followers seeking the homeless life.192

2. 14.THE STRUGGLE FOR ORDINATION

The Bhikṣuṇī Sangha emerged not as a novel idea, but as a formalization of women’s desperate struggle for spiritual liberation. Mahāpajāpatī Gotami, along with 500 Shakya noblewomen, was a pioneer. They abandoned royal luxury to

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. by Hastings , vol. 8, p. 799.
  2. Talim, Meena, Women in Early Buddhist Literature, 6.

embrace a life of austerity, overcoming severe social prejudices and physical hardships to prove their sincerity.193

14.3.   SPIRITUAL ACHIEVEMENT AND PROPAGATION

The Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns) provides undeniable evidence that women were capable of attaining the four stages of holiness: Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahant.

  • Bhadda Kundalakesa: A brilliant debater whose logic was only surpassed by Sariputra and Moggallana. She traveled across Anga, Magadha, and Kosala for over 50 years teaching the Dharma.194
  • Patacara: A renowned master of the Vinaya (monastic law) who converted 500 women in a single 195
  • Dhammadinna: A philosopher who famously engaged in a deep theological debate with her former husband, Visakha, on the nature of the self and the Eightfold 196
  • Khema and Uppalavanna: Distinguished for their wisdom and psychic powers, 197

The Wisdom of Dhammadinnā

e Majjhima Nikāya (Reference 65) records a philosophical debate between the Bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā and her former husband, Visākha. He raised profound questions concerning the self-identity view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi), the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthaṅgika Magga), mental formations (saṅkhāra), and cessation (nirodha). Dhammadinnā answered these questions in a highly persuasive manner before a vast assembly.

Bhikkhunis such as Khemā, Uppalavaṇṇā, and Dhammadinnā

  1. Monastic Life of The Early Buddhist Nuns, Subhra Barua Atisha, Callutta, 1997, p.58.
  2. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.
  3. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.
  4. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.
  5. Therigatha, R.Pischel, London: PTS, 1883, p. 521-525.

stand as iconic figures of talent and wisdom among women in ancient India. Uppalavaṇṇā was renowned for her psychic powers (iddhi), while Nandā and Kuṇḍalakesā were distinguished for their mastery of meditation and insight. Their reputations were not only revered within the monastic community but also spread rapidly throughout society (Reference 66).

This clearly demonstrates that the Order of Nuns possesses the full capacity to achieve great Buddhist works and attain the same stages of holiness as the Order of Monks.”

Key Philosophical Topics Discussed:

  • Self-Identity (Sakkāya-diṭṭhi): She explains how the five aggregates are mistaken for a “self.”
  • The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga): She clarifies how the path is categorized into the three aggregates of Virtue, Concentration, and
  • Formations (Saṅkhāra): She defines verbal, bodily, and mental formations.
  • Cessation (Nirodha): She explains the attainment of the cessation of perception and feeling.

When Visākha later reported this conversation to the Buddha, the Buddha famously remarked that Dhammadinnā was exceedingly wise and that he would have explained the matters in exactly the same way.

14.4. THE “GREAT ASSEMBLY” OF EMINENT NUNS

The text lists several prominent Bhikkhunis, each representing a “foremost” quality (Etadagga):

Bhikkhuni

Foremost Quality

Vietnamese Name

Khemā

Wisdom

(Bát-nhã/Trí tuệ)

Bảo-an / Khê- ma

Uppalavaṇṇā

Psychic Powers

(Thần thông)

Liên Hoa Sắc

Dhammadinnā

Dhamma Teaching

(Thuyết Pháp)

Pháp Lạc

Nandā

Meditation

(Thiền định)

Hoan Hỉ / Nan- đà

Bhaddā Kuṇḍalakesā

Quick Intuition

(Trí tuệ nhanh chóng)

Kundalakesa

14.5.              ARCHAEOLOGICAL       AND       EPIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Your research highlights that the prosperity of the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha is not merely a scriptural legend but is grounded in physical history:

  • Ashokan Edicts: The Schism Edict and the Bhabru Rock Edict mention Bhikṣuṇī s as equal members of the 198
  • Sanchi and Bodh Gaya: Inscriptions on the railings at Bodh Gaya (17 in total) honor the Arhat Kurangi (formerly a Queen) for her immense contributions to the 199
  • Junnar Caves: Inscriptions record the existence of a Bhikṣuṇī -upasaya (nunnery) belonging to the Dhammutariya 200

14.5. DECLINE AND LEGACY

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. Subhra Barua Atisha, Monastic Life of The Early Buddhist Nuns, Callutta, 1997, p. 76.
  2. Beal, Samuel, Buddhist Records of the Western World, London, 1889, I, p. xxxix.
  3. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicum, vol. III, p. 273-4.

1.  The Observations of I-Tsing (Nghĩa Tịnh)

The Chinese monk I-Tsing, who traveled to India in the late 7th century (roughly 671–695 CE), noted a distinct difference between Indian and Chinese nuns.201

Simplicity: Unlike the more institutionalized and wealthy nunneries in China, Indian nuns remained strictly committed to the original mendicant lifestyle, living simply and relying on alms (khất thực).

2.  Devotional Shifts

The mention of Subandhu (author of the Vāsavadattā) indicates that by the middle period of Indian Buddhism, nuns were deeply involved in Mahayana practices, specifically the veneration of Tara and Avalokiteshvara (Quan Thế Âm). This shows that the female Sangha was integral to the theological shifts occurring in great centers like Nalanda.

3.  The Period of Decline

9th–10th Century: The historical record becomes silent. References to nuns in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature disappear, suggesting the Order had either shrunk to small, isolated groups or ceased to exist as a formal institution.202

11th Century Onward: The final blow to the remnants of the Buddhist Sangha (both monks and nuns) came with the waves of invasions that destroyed major monastic universities.

15.6.THE STATUS AND REVIVAL OF THE BHIKKHUNĪ SANGHA

 
  clip_image047.gif


The status and revival of the Bhikkhunī Sangha in India during the 21st century is a story of “returning home.” After being absent from the Indian landscape for nearly a millennium, the

  1. Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Practices, 80; Trích trong Monastic Life of The Early Buddhist Nuns, Subhra Barua Atisha, Callutta, 1997, p. 76.
  2. Epigraphia Indica, Xv, 1985, p. 34.

lineage is currently undergoing a fragile but historic restoration, fueled by international collaboration and the Dalit Buddhist movement.

1.  The Global Catalyst: The Bodh Gaya Ordinations

The 21st-century landscape for Indian nuns was set by two landmark events in the late 1990s that continue to bear fruit today:

  • 1998 Bodh Gaya Ordination: Organized by Fo Guang Shan (Taiwan) at the Mahabodhi Temple. This event provided the “lineage bridge,” using the Chinese Dharmaguptaka tradition to restore the Theravada Bhikkhunī line.
  • The Sarnath Lineage: Parallel efforts in Sarnath helped establish a core group of ten Sri Lankan and Indian nuns who could then act as preceptors for others.

2.  The Rise of the Ambedkarite (Dalit) Bhikkhunīs

One of the most significant developments in 21st-century India is the ordination of women from the Navayana (Ambedkarite) tradition.

Social Liberation: For many women from marginalized castes, becoming a Bhikkhunī is an act of both spiritual and social liberation.

Center of Activity: Nagpur and Aurangabad have become hubs for these new ordinations. Unlike the ancient nuns who relied on royal patronage, these nuns are deeply embedded in social work, education, and community organizing.

3.  The Himalayan Tradition and the “Jetavan” Movement

While the Theravada lineage was technically “broken,” the Tibetan tradition (Mulasarvastivada) always had a strong presence of female practitioners (novices).

  • Full Ordination (Gelōngma): In the 21st century, there has been a vigorous push (supported by the 14th Dalai Lama) to grant full ordination to Himalayan
  • Sakyadhita International: Conferences held in India (like the 2004 Seoul conference you cited or the 2013 Vaishali conference) have provided the academic and legal framework to justify these ordinations within Indian law and Buddhist

4.  Key Challenges in the 21st Century

Despite the revival, Indian Bhikkhunīs face significant hurdles:

  • Institutional Recognition: Many traditionalist monks in the Theravada world still refuse to recognize the validity of these ordinations, citing the “broken lineage” argument.
  • Financial Independence: As noted by I-Tsing in the 7th century, Indian nuns remain “poor and ” Without the massive temple endowments seen in China or Taiwan, 21st- century Indian nuns often struggle for basic healthcare and housing.
  • Educational Access: While monks have established universities (like the revived Nalanda), many nuns must still travel abroad (to Sri Lanka or Taiwan) for advanced theological training.

5.  Summary of the Current State

 

Feature

Ancient India (Nalanda Era)

21st Century India

Lineage

Direct from Mahapajapati

Restored via China/ Korea/Sri Lanka

Support

Royal Patronage (Kings/Queens)

International NGOs & Lay Dalit communities

 

 

Feature

Ancient India (Nalanda Era)

21st Century India

Primary Focus

Scholasticism & Logic

Social Justice & Grassroots Dhamma

Status

Fully integrated in the Sangha

Navigating a “Revival” phase

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, January 24 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

Reference:

  • Monastic Life of the Early Buddhist Nuns, Subhra Barua Atisha, Calcutta, 1997.
  • The Buddha and his Teachings, Narada, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia,

 7.15. FINDING PEACE WITHIN THE MIND

For a long time, we have understood that fanaticism leads the world toward ruin. Religions must seek solutions to dismantle the barriers of this fanaticism. We need people of peace and wisdom, for only such individuals can break down the walls of separation between faiths and foster mutual cooperation, the ultimate goal of all world religions.

A person of peace is one whose mind is always serene and harmonious. Everywhere, we hear people crying out for peace, praying for peace, and even fighting for peace. But what truly is peace? It is more than just the absence of war, the cessation of hostility, or the unity between people.

15.1.     THE HUMAN ESSENCE AND THE IMAGE OF PEACE

When asked who we are, each of us answers differently. Some say they are Vietnamese, others Indian. Some identify as Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, or Hindu. Others define themselves by their profession: monk, teacher, or doctor. However, regardless of nationality, religion, or profession, we share one commonality: we are all human beings.

  • In Buddhism: A human being is the combination of the Five Aggregates (Pancha Skandha) and the result of their own
  • In Christianity: The central concept is that humans are created in the “image of God.”
  • In Hinduism (Bhagavad Gita): It is declared: “Mamivamsho Jiva Loke Jiva Bhuta Sanathana,” meaning all living beings in this world are manifestations of the Divine.

What is this “image of God”? Is it a being with eyes, a nose, and limbs like ours? In truth, according to spiritual wisdom, the actual image of the Divine is Peace. This is the image in which we were created. Peace is our birthright. We were born with it.

15.2.   PEACE AS AN ORIGINAL STATE

In Zen Buddhism, when Huike (Shenguang) asked Bodhidharma to pacify his mind, the Patriarch replied: “Bring me your mind, and I will pacify it for you!” Huike suddenly realized that his mind was inherently pure and peaceful from the very beginning.

This is why peace is an embodied state of our existence. It is our original state. We are born in peace, we live in peace, and we die in peace, only to be reborn with peace. Yet, despite it being our birthright, we often fail to see it in our lives. It remains an elusive “monster” that hides from us. Why is this? If peace is the original state of our mind, why do we not possess it? Why

do people search for it so desperately?

15.3.   RECOGNIZING PEACE INSTINCTIVELY

Think about this: Have you ever actually seen peace? Have you perceived it with your senses? Has anyone ever pointed to an object and said, “This is peace”?

If you truly reflect on it, you will realize that no one had to point it out to you. You know it instinctively. You have a good night’s sleep, and when you wake up the next morning feeling refreshed, you say, “I had a very peaceful sleep.” How do you know what a peaceful sleep is? You weren’t conscious of your surroundings while sleeping. You only know it when you wake up. This proves that peace is our inherent nature. Like knowing whether water is hot or cold simply by drinking it, peace is a state of being that we are.

15.4.   PEACE AMIDST CONFLICT

Peace is not the absence of conflict or disorder. In this world, no one is free from trouble.

  • For an infant: Teething, walking, and eating are
  • For a student: School, exams, and homework are
  • For a youth: Anxiety about appearance and social perception is a struggle.
  • For an adult: Career, marriage, and the future of children bring
  • For the elderly: Sickness and failing health cause

Our entire life is filled with concern for ourselves and others. In such a state, can we ever truly have peace? Yes, because peace is a state of mind. It is a state of being that remains unaffected by the external forces that cause anxiety and despair. Just as there are storms on the surface of the ocean that swallow ships, deep

beneath the surface, tiny fish still swim happily and peacefully, unaffected by the turbulence above.

15.5.   THE HIDING PLACE OF PEACE

Peace is not something outside of us; it is present within. No store can sell peace. H.H. Sri Sathya Sai Baba203 once said that God looked for a place to hide peace so that humans would not easily find it. After searching everywhere, He finally hid it in the most sacred place: inside the human heart. He knew that humans would look for peace everywhere except within themselves.

If you look at the world today, that is exactly what people are doing. They search for peace as if it were a commodity. But peace is a state of existence. You cannot “find” peace; you must be peaceful.

15.6.  A MESSAGE TO THE YOUTH

To the young generation: all the problems of today exist because the youth of yesterday did not understand this truth. They grew up to be dissatisfied and careless adults, destroying their own peace and the world’s peace. You have a great responsibility because you shape the world of tomorrow.

If you have peace within yourself, you will have peace in your home and your society. You are the one who determines what kind of world you want. Every conflict or act of terrorism reported in the news is a result of a lack of understanding of inner peace. This can be changed by cultivating understanding and love for those around you.

 
  clip_image047.gif


Stop searching for peace externally. Instead, discover the peace within. As the Buddha taught in the Surangama Sūtra: “When the mind is at peace, the world is at peace.” Let us bring that inner peace out and share it with everyone to create a world

  1. Towards A Culture of Harmony and Peace, Editor T.D.Singh, 7-10 December 2003, New Delhi, p.18.

truly worth living in.

 7.16. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF VAISHALI

In the past, Vaishali was the site of many significant events in the life of the Buddha. Most notably, it is the sacred ground where the Bhikṣuṇī Sangha (the Order of Buddhist Nuns) was first established in India. This article introduces several key aspects of this holy site.

 
  clip_image140.jpg

16.1.  GEOGRAPHICALLOCATIONANDSIGNIFICANCE

Vaishali (also known as Vesali or Phệ-xá-ly)204 was the capital of the Licchavi (or Vrijian) confederacy and served as a powerful center of Buddhism during the Buddha’s lifetime.205 The archaeologist Alexander Cunningham identified this site as the modern village of Basarh in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar,

  1. Glossary of Buddhist Terms, in Seven Languages, Upasaka Minh-Thông This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
  2. Report of the Archaelogical Survey of India, I, 55-6, xvi, pp.6, 34, 89-

91.

located approximately 58 kilometers north of Patna.

16.2.      THE BUDDHA’S PRESENCE AND PROMINENT DISCIPLES

While it is difficult to determine exactly how many times the Buddha visited Vaishali, we know that many pivotal discourses were delivered here, including the Mahali Sūtra, the Ratana Sūtra,206 and the Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sūtra.

Many of the Buddha’s most distinguished disciples were associated with thiscity, including Nandaka, theelder Vajjiputta, the former courtesan Ambapali, and the elder nun Vimala. To accommodate the Buddha and his Sangha, the Licchavi people built several monasteries, such as Kutagarasala, Capala, and Markata.207

16.3.    MIRACLES AND DISCIPLINARY DECISIONS

Five years after his enlightenment, the Buddha visited Vaishali during a severe drought. It is recorded that as soon as his foot touched the ground, thunder rolled and rain poured down, relieving the city’s suffering.208

The Mahavagga and Cullavagga texts reveal that many important decisions regarding Dharma and Vinaya (precepts) were made here. Most significantly:

It was here that the Buddha announced his impending

Parinirvana.

 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. Jagdeesh Chandra Mathur and Yogendra Mrsra, Homage to Vaishali, publish by Vaishali community, 1949, 128.
  2. Jagdeesh Chandra Mathur and Yogendra Mrsra, Homage to Vaishali, publish by Vaishali community, 1949, 128.
  3. The Mahāvastu (Vol. I, pp. 253–300) identifies the Ratana Sutta (Discourse on Treasures) as a key text within the Khuddakapāṭha and describes it as a Svastyanagatha (Verses of Well-being).

This is further documented in G.P. Malalasekera’s ‘Dictionary of Pali Proper Names’ (New Delhi, 1998, pp. 709–800, 941–943), which explores the historical and geographical significance of these protective chants in ancient India.”

It was here, upon the heartfelt plea of Mahāpajāpatī Gotami, that the Order of Nuns was finally established.

The Ekapanna Jātaka (Jātaka No. 149) describes the capital of the Licchavis as a masterpiece of ancient Indian urban planning. The triple wall system was not just for defense but reflected the “Vajji” style of democratic and organized governance.209

16,4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES RECORDED BY XUANZANG

When the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Huyen-trang) visited in the 7th century, he found the ancient city in ruins210 but documented several sacred landmarks:

  • The Ashokan Lion Pillar: A pillar 50–60 feet high, with a lion seated at the top facing north toward Kushinagar (where the Buddha entered Nirvana).211
  • The Relic Stupa: Originally, the Licchavis received one- tenth of the Buddha’s King Ashoka later opened this stupa to distribute the relics into 84,000 smaller stupas across the land.
  • The Monkey Tank: A pond said to have been dug by a troop of monkeys as an offering to the Near here, a stupa marks where the monkeys offered a bowl of honey to the Blessed One.
  • Vimalakirti’s Residence: A site marking where the layman Vimalakirti “feigned illness” to teach the
 
  clip_image047.gif

  • Ambapali’s Mango Grove: The garden donated by the courtesan Ambapali, where Mahāpajāpatī Gotami and other
  1. Jagdeesh Chandra Mathur and Yogendra Mrsra, Homage to Vaishali, published by Vaishali community, 1949, 125.
  2. Deepak Kumar Barua, Viharas in Ancient India, Indian publications Calcutta, 1969, p.121.
  3. Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, VII, London, 1906, 66-7.

Bhikṣuṇī s eventually attained Nirvana.

16.5. URBAN STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL ORDER

According to the Tibetan Dulva and the Ekapanna Jataka, ancient Vaishali was protected by three layers of walls, each with its own gates and watchtowers. The city was divided into three districts based on the caste system:

  • The First District: 7,000 houses with golden towers (for the Brahmin/priestly class).
  • The Middle District: 14,000 houses with silver towers (for the Kshatriya/warrior-royal class).
  • The Final District: 21,000 houses with copper towers (for the Vaishya/merchant-farmer class).

16.6.CONCLUSION

Given the historical values mentioned above, the sacred site of Vaishali holds international significance. It remains a place of profound spiritual power for the global Buddhist community, particularly for women. The preservation, restoration, and development of Vaishali are essential to honoring the legacy of the pioneering nuns who achieved enlightenment on this very soil.

WUS University Hostel, Delhi, January 23, 2005

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

References:

  • Subhra Barua Atisha, Monastic Life of the Early Buddhist

Nuns, Calcutta, 1997.

  • Deepak Kumar Barua, Viharas in Ancient India, Calcutta,

1969.

  • Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, London, 1906.
 
  clip_image142.jpg

Interfaith harmony in the heart of Mehrauli:

Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and local residents

at the ancient Dargah of Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, October 2003.

 

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

APPENDIX: PHOTOS OF VIETNAMESE

MONASTICS AND BHIKSUNI TN GIỚI HƯƠNG IN INDIA (1995-2005)

This collection of photographs chronicles ten years of rigorous study and pilgrimage across the most sacred sites of Buddhism, culminating in a Doctorate from the University of Delhi.

1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

Capturing the early years of residency and research in the vibrant political and cultural heart of India.

 
  clip_image144.jpg
  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image146.jpg

 

       
  clip_image149.jpg   clip_image150.jpg

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image152.jpg

 

 
  clip_image154.jpg

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image157.jpg

 

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 
  clip_image160.jpg

 

 

  1. The Capital of Delhi (1995)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image162.jpg

 

2.  Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

Pilgrimage to the sacred garden in Nepal, where Prince Siddhartha was born.

 
  clip_image164.jpg
 
  clip_image166.jpg
  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image168.jpg

 

 
  clip_image170.jpg

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image173.jpg

 

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image175.jpg

 

 
  clip_image177.jpg

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 
  clip_image179.jpg

 

 
  clip_image181.jpg

 

  1. Lumbini – The Birthplace of the Buddha (1996)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image183.jpg

 

3.Bodh Gaya – The Enlightenment Place of the Buddha (1997)

Deep contemplation under the Bodhi tree, where the Buddha attained Supreme Awakening.

       
  clip_image186.jpg   clip_image187.jpg

clip_image189.jpg

3.Bodh Gaya – The Enlightenment Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image192.jpg

 

 

  1. Bodh Gaya – The Enlightenment Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 
  clip_image196.gif

 

 

4.  Dungeshwari Cave – The Forest of Austerities (1997)

 
  clip_image198.jpg


Reflecting on the six years of extreme asceticism practiced by the Buddha in the forest.

 
  clip_image200.jpg

5.  Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)

Visiting the ruins of the world's oldest Buddhist university in Bihar.

 
  clip_image202.jpg
 
  clip_image204.jpg
  1. Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)
 
  clip_image206.jpg

 

 
  clip_image208.jpg

 

  1. Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image210.jpg

 

 
  clip_image212.jpg

 

  1. Nālandā University – Ancient Seat of Learning (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image214.jpg

 

 
  clip_image216.jpg

 

6.  Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

Ascending the mountain where the Buddha delivered many Mahayana Sūtras.

 
  clip_image218.jpg
 
  clip_image220.jpg
  1. Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

 

 

 
  clip_image222.jpg

 

 
  clip_image224.jpg

 

  1. Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

 

 

 
  clip_image226.jpg

 

 
  clip_image228.jpg

 

  1. Vulture Peak (Gridhakuta Hill) (1997)

 

 

 
  clip_image230.jpg

 

 
  clip_image232.jpg

 

7.  Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 
  clip_image234.jpg


The place where the Buddha founded Buddhism and the Wheel of Dharma was first turned in Varanasi.

 
  clip_image236.jpg
  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 
  clip_image239.gif

 

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image241.jpg

 

 
  clip_image243.jpg

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image245.jpg

 

 
  clip_image247.jpg

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image250.jpg

 

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image252.jpg

 

 
  clip_image254.jpg

 

  1. Sārnāth – The First Sermon Place of the Buddha (1997)

 

       
  clip_image257.jpg   clip_image258.jpg

 

 
  clip_image260.jpg

 

8.  Ellora and Ajanta Caves (1998)

Researching the magnificent Buddhist rock-cut architecture and murals.

 
  clip_image262.jpg
 
  clip_image264.jpg

9.  Sravasti – The Jetavana Monastery (1999)

Tracing the footsteps of the Buddha, who spent 25 rainy season retreats here.

 
  clip_image266.jpg
 
  clip_image268.jpg

10.  Kushinagar – The Parinirvana Place of the Buddha (1999)

Paying respects at the final resting place where the Buddha entered Mahaparinirvana.

 
  clip_image270.jpg
 
  clip_image272.jpg

11.  Nagarjuna Konda (2001)

Visiting the lake and site dedicated to Master Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school.

 
  clip_image274.jpg
 
  clip_image276.jpg
  1. Nagarjuna Konda (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image279.jpg

 

 

12.        Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

Research tour and meditation in the high plateaus and serene lakes of Northern India.

 
  clip_image282.jpg
  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

       
  clip_image285.jpg   clip_image286.jpg

 

 
  clip_image288.jpg

 

  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image290.jpg

 

 
  clip_image292.jpg

 

  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image294.jpg

 

 

  1. Sikkim and Naini Tal Lake (2001)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image297.jpg

 

 

13.  Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)

 
  clip_image299.jpg


A significant milestone, the successful completion and awarding of the Doctorate in Philosophy.

 
  clip_image301.jpg
  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image303.jpg

 

 
  clip_image305.jpg

 

  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)
 
  clip_image307.jpg

 

 
  clip_image309.jpg

 

  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)
 
  clip_image311.jpg

 

 
  clip_image313.jpg

 

  1. Ph.D. Graduation from the University of Delhi (2003)

 

 

 

 
  clip_image315.jpg

 

 
  clip_image317.jpg

 

 

clip_image319.gif

 

BAO ANH LAC BOOKSHELF

Revised by Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương

 

 

 

Books and scriptures can be purchased on Amazon or downloaded digitally at: www.huongsentemple.com/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

1.1.  The Vietnamese Books

  1. Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa (Bodhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions)
  2. Ban Mai Xứ Ấn - Nhật Ký Mười năm Tu học trên đất Phật (1995-2005) (The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)
  3. Sārnātha - Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi Phật Giáo (Sārnātha -

Deer Park–the Cradle of Buddhism)

  1. Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới (Take Refuge in Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts)
  2. Vòng Luân Hồi (The Cycle of Life)
  3. Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee (Snowflake in Milwaukee)
  4. Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm (Rebirth in Śūrangama Sūtra)
  1. Nghi Thức Hộ Niệm, Cầu Siêu (The Ritual for the Deceased)
  2. Quan Âm Quảng Trần (The Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva)
  3. Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ (A Nun and American Inmates)
  4. Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV (The Awakened Mind of the 14th Dalai Lama)
  5. A-Hàm: Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não (Agama – A Dharma Rain Transforms the Defilement), 2 tập
  6. Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris (Collection of Sunlight in Perris).
  7. Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang (Key Words of Vajracchedikā- Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra)
  8. Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm (Songs and Poems of Śūraṅgama Sunlight)
  9. Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa (Reflections at the Temple Window)
  10. Máy Nghe MP3 Hương Sen (Hương Sen Digital Mp3 Radio Speaker): Các Bài Giảng, Sách, Bài viết và Thơ Nhạc của Thích Nữ Giới Hương (383/201 bài); Lectures, Books, Articles and Poems by Gioi Huong (383/201 songs)
  11. DVD Giới Thiệu về Chùa Hương Sen, USA (Introduction to Huong Sen Temple)
  12. Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ (Sharing the Dharma - Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States)
  13. Tuyển Tập 40 Năm Tu Học & Hoằng Pháp của Ni sư Giới Hương (Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương), Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận, TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông
  14. Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở (Songs and Poems of Lotus

 

Blooming on the Way)

  1. Nghi Thức Công Phu Khuya – Thần Chú Thủ Lăng Nghiêm

(Śūraṅgama Mantra)

  1. Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Phổ Môn (The Universal Door Sūtra)
  2. Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Dược Sư (The Medicine Buddha Sūtra)
  3. Nghi Thức Sám Hối Hồng Danh (Ritual of Repentance and Invocation of Sacred Names)
  4. Nghi Thức Công Phu Chiều – Mông Sơn Thí Thực (The Evening Chanting Ritual – Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts)
  5. Khóa Tịnh Độ – Kinh A Di Đà (The Amitabha Buddha Sūtra).
  6. Nghi Thức Cúng Linh và Cầu Siêu (Ritual of Offering to the Spirits and Praying for the Deceased)
  7. Nghi Lễ Hàng Ngày - 50 Kinh Tụng và các Lễ Vía trong

Năm (Daily Chanting Rituals and Annual Ceremonies)

  1. Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022, The Path of Life 2022 (Collection of Sixty Essays from the 2022 Applied Buddhist Philosophy Writing Contest)
  2. Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 (Collection of Winning Entries from the 2022 Applied Buddhist Essay Writing Contest)
  3. Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn (Giới Hương – The Virtue Fragrance Against the Thousand Winds), Nguyên Hà
  4. Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (Dharma Teachings of the Avatamsaka Sutra (Buddhaavatamsaka-nāma mahāvaipulya- sūtra) (2 volumes)
  1. Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (The Essence of the Avatamsaka

Sutra)

  1. Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành (Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision). Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương
  2. Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ (Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta)
  3. Nghi cúng Giao Thừa (New Year’s Eve Ceremony)
  4. Nghi cúng Rằm Tháng Giêng (The Ceremony of the First Month’s Full Moon)
  5. Nghi thức Lễ Phật Đản (The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony)
  6. Nghi thức Vu Lan (The Ullambana Festival or Parent Day)
  7. Lễ Vía Quan Âm (The Avolokiteshvara Day)
  8. Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di (The Death Anniversary of Mahapajapati Gotami)
  9. Nghi thức cúng Tổ và Giác linh Sư trưởng (The Ancestor Day)
  10. Nghi Lễ Chẩn Tế Mười Hai Loại Cô Hồn (Offering Food to the Twelve Ghosts)
  11. Kỷ Yếu Lễ Tưởng Niệm Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di tại Chùa Hương Sen năm 2024 (The Yearbook of the Commemoration of Mahapajapati Gotami at Huong Sen Temple in 2024)
  12. Nghi Thức Cầu Siêu Chư Hương Linh Thai Nhi (Prayer for the Souls of Unborn Babies (Miscarriage, Abortion, Termination, Stillbirth)
  13. Kim Quang Minh Kinh Sám Trai Thiên Khóa Nghi (The Golden Light Sutra - Heavenly Course)
  1. Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka (Buddhism and Holy Buddhist Places in Sri Lanka)
  2. Đấu Tranh Bất Bạo Động Là Nền Tảng Xây Dựng Hòa Bình Toàn Cầu (Nonviolent Struggle - the Foundation for Building Global Peace)
  3. Vũ Trụ Luận dưới lăng kính Khoa học và Phật Giáo

(Cosmology under the Lens of Science and Buddhism)

  1. COVID-19: Vai trò Phật Giáo trong Việc Chữa Lành

(COVID-19: The Role of Buddhism in Healing)

  1. Đại Dịch Coronavirus trong Thế Kỷ XXI (Coronavirus Pandemic in the Twenty-First Century)
  2. Đóng góp của Phật Giáo cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và Hòa Hợp Xã Hội (Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace & Social Harmony).
  3. Phật Giáo Toàn Cầu - Đặc Biệt Liên Kết Với Sri Lanka (Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka)
  4. Phật Giáo Sri Lanka từ Thế Kỷ 19-21 (Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of 19th to Twenty-First Centuries)
  5. Ngày Nhà Giáo Việt Nam 20/11 – Tri Ân Người Khai Trí (Vietnamese Teachers’ Day November 20 - Gratitude to the Master Guiding the knowledge)
  6. Lịch Sử Giáo Dục Phật Giáo ở Sri Lanka: Sự Phục Hồi của Ni Đoàn Tỳ-kheo-ni (History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of The Bhikkhuni Sangha)
  7. Sự Tiến Hóa của Vũ Trụ, Con Người và Nghiệp Báo (The Evolution of the Universe, Humans and Karma)
  8. Vũ Trụ Luận dưới lăng kính Khoa Học và Phật Giáo

(Cosmology through the Lens of Science and Buddhism).

  1. Phật giáo Nga thế kỷ XXI – Cánh cửa Tâm linh (Russian Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century – The Door to Spirituality)
  2. Phật Giáo Châu Phi Thế Kỷ XXI (Buddhism in Africa in the Twenty-First Century)
  3. Phương Pháp Chữa Lành Bằng Tuệ Giác Kinh Đại Bảo Tích (Healing Methods through the Wisdom of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra)
  4. Trí Tuệ Cổ Xưa và Bài Học Ứng Dụng Hiện Đại qua Kinh Hiền Ngu (Ancient Wisdom and Modern Practical Lessons through the Wise-Foolish Sūtra)
  5. Triết lý Phật Giáo và Bài học Thực tiễn qua tác phẩm “Thoát Vòng Tục Lụy” (Buddhist Philosophy and Practical Lessons found in “Transcending the Worldly Attachments”)
  6. Tíchtruyện Kinh Pháp Cúvà Ứng Dụng (2 tập) (Dhammapada

Stories and Practical Applications)

  1. Khóa lễ Ngũ Bách Danh (Hundred Names of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Ceremony)
  2. Nghi Tụng Kinh Di Giáo (Reciting the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching Sutra)
  3. Nghi Tụng Sám Sám Hối Sáu Căn (Reciting the Repentance of the Six Senses)
  4. Nghi Tụng Quy Sơn Cảnh Sách (Reciting Master Guishan’s Admonitions)
  5. Nghi Thức Lễ Xuống Tóc Xuất Gia (The Tonsure and Ordination Ceremony)
  6. Nghi Thức Truyền Sa-di-ni Giới (The Ritual for Conferring the Śrāmaṇerikā)
  7. Nghi Thức Truyền Giới Thức-xoa-ma-na (The Ritual for

Conferring the Śikṣamāṇā (Probationary Nun) Precepts)

  1. Nghi Thức Truyền Năm Giới, Mười Giới và Bồ Tát Giới Tại Gia (The Transmitting Ceremony of Lay Precepts (The Five, Ten and Lay Bodhisattva Precepts)
  2. Nghi Thức Truyền Bồ Tát Giới Xuất Gia (The Ritual for Conferring the Monastic Bodhisattva Precepts)
  3. Phật Giáo Bhutan Thế kỷ XXI (Bhutan Buddhism in the

Twenty-First Century)

1.2.  The English Books

  1. Bodhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions
  2. Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
  3. Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva
  4. The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra
  5. Sārnātha the Cradle of Buddhism (From an Archeological Perspective)
  6. Take Refuge in the Three Gems and keep the Five Precepts
  7. Cycle of Life
  8. Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service— Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương
  9. Sharing the Dharma-Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the

United States

  1. A Buddhist Nun and American Inmates
  2. Daily Monastic Chanting
  3. Weekly Buddhist Discourse Chanting

 

  1. Practice Meditation and Pure Land
  2. The Ceremony for Peace
  3. The Lunch Offering Ritual
  4. The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts
  5. The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra
  6. The Medicine Buddha Sutra
  7. The New Year Ceremony
  8. The Great Parinirvana Ceremony
  9. The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony
  10. The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day)
  11. The Marriage Ceremony
  12. The Blessing Ceremony for the Deceased
  13. The Ceremony Praising Ancestral Masters
  14. The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony
  15. The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts)
  16. Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. Edited by Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
  17. Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace & Social Harmony. Edited by Dr. Buddha Priya MahaThero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
  18. Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy Edited by Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Thero and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
  19. Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Period of Nineteen

 

to Twenty-First Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Colombo. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong

  1. Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of

Mindfulness Sutta

  1. Prayer for the Souls of Unborn
  2. Nonviolent Struggle - the Foundation for Building Global Peace
  3. History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha
  4. The Essential Teachings of Avataṃsaka Sūtra
  5. Russian Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century – The Door to Spirituality
  6. Buddhism in Africa in the Twenty-First Century
  7. Buddhism and Sacred Sites of Sri
  8. COVID 19 - The Role of Buddhism to Heal
  9. The Coronavirus Pandemic in the Twenty-First Century
  10. Healing Methods through the Wisdom of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra
  11. Ancient Wisdom and Modern Practical Lessons through the Wise-Foolish Sūtra
  12. Buddhist Philosophy and Practical Lessons found in

“Transcending the Worldly Attachments”

  1. Dhammapada Stories and Practical Applications (2 volumes)
  2. The Dawn in India: A Ten-Year Diary of Buddhist Discovery (1995–2005)
  3. ĀGAMAS-The Dharma Rain Transforming Afflictions, 2

 

volumes

  1. The Five Hundred Names of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Ceremony
  2. The Evolution of the Universe, Humanity, and Karma
  3. The Cosmology through the Lens of Science and Buddhism
  4. The Transmitting Ceremony of Lay Precepts (The Five, Ten and Lay Bodhisattva Precepts)
  5. Bhutan Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century

 

 

1.3.  The Bilingual Books (Vietnamese-English)

  1. Bản Tin Hương Sen: Xuân, Phật Đản, Vu Lan (Hương Sen Newsletter: Spring, Buddha Birthday and Vu Lan, annual/ Mỗi Năm)
  2. Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách - Good Words Nurture a Good Manner
  3. Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản - Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan
  4. Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ - Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream
  5. Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương - Words of Love and Understanding
  6. Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái - The Ancient and Modern Culture through Pilgrimage and Worship
  7. Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống - Art of Living
  8. Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India
  9. The Great Contribution to World Peace and Social Harmony of Emperor Ashoka and Emperor Trần Nhân Tông - Sự Đóng

 

Góp cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và An toàn Xã Hội của Hoàng

Đế A-Dục và Vua Trần Nhân Tông

1.4.  Translated Books

  1. Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật (Relics of the Buddha), Tham Weng Yew
  2. Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù (Lotus in Prison), many
  3. Chùa Việt Nam Hải Ngoại (Overseas Vietnamese Buddhist Temples)
  4. Việt Nam Danh Lam Cổ Tự (The Famous Ancient Buddhist Temples in Vietnam)
  5. Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc – (Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music)
  6. Phật Giáo - Một Bậc Đạo Sư, Nhiều Truyền Thống (Buddhism: One Teacher – Many Traditions), Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma 14th & Ni Sư Thubten Chodren
  7. Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết - Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective)

2. Buddhist Music Albums From Poems of Thích Nữ Giới Hương

  1. Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh (The Buddha’s Teachings Reflected in Cherry Flowers)
  2. Niềm Tin Tam Bảo (Trust in the Three Gems)
  3. Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai (The Thousand-Year Full Moon Awaits)
  1. Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp (Moonlight of Dharma-Buddha)
  2. Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Awakened Mind at the Dawn) (Piano

Variations for Meditation)

  1. Tiếng Hát Già Lam (Song from the Temple)
  2. Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa (The Magnificent, Ancient Buddhist Temple)
  3. Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở (An Udumbara Flower Is Blooming)
  4. Hương Sen Ca (Hương Sen’s Songs)
  5. Về Chùa Vui Tu (Happily Go to Temple for Spiritual Practices)
  6. Gọi Nắng Xuân Về (Call the Spring Sunlight)
  7. Đệ Tử Phật (Buddhist Disciples)
  8. Hoa Phước Đức (Flower of Merit)
  9. Vu Lan Báo Hiếu (Filial Piety in the Vu Lan Season)
  10. Nương Bóng Từ Quang (Refuge in the Buddha)

Please visit: http://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/kinh- sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

 

 

 

 
  clip_image053.jpg

 

 

 

 

 

 About the Author

 
  clip_image321.jpg

B
 

orn in 1963 in Bình Thuận, Vietnam, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Giới Hương entered the monastic life at the age of fifteen under the tutelage of the renowned Master, the Most Venerable Bhikkhunī Hải Triều Âm. Her academic journey began with a Bachelor’s Degree in Literature from Sài Gòn University in 1994, followed by fifteen years of intensive study in India, culminating in a Ph.D. in Buddhist Philosophy from the

University of Delhi in 2003.

Since relocating to the United States in 2005, she earned a second Bachelor’s in Literature from the University of California,

Riverside (2015). Today, she shares her expertise as a lecturer at the Vietnam Buddhist University in Ho Chi Minh City and various Buddhist centers across the United States.

Finding inspiration in the profound silence of Dharma contemplation, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương is a prolific author, translator, and lyricist. Under her Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf, she has published an impressive collection of 134 titles in both English and Vietnamese as of April 2026.1

In April 2010, she founded the Hương Sen Temple in Perris, California, where she currently serves as Abbess. This ten-acre sanctuary, nestled in the semi-desert of southern California, was officially incorporated as a 501(c)(3) religious nonprofit in June 2011. Today, the temple is home to the Abbess, six resident Bhikṣuṇī disciples, and their three canine companions: Rosie, Bruno, and Rudy.

 
  clip_image323.jpg
 
  clip_image047.gif
  1. https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

PLEASE READ THE WHOLE BOOK WITH COLOR PHOTOS: 129.The_Dawn_In_India.pdf

INTRODUCTION OF HUONG SEN TEMPLE

ORIGIN

Hương Sen Buddhist Temple is located in Perris, California, on ten acres of semidesert in the southern part of the state. Established in April 2010 by Venerable Abbess Dr. Bhikṣuṇī  Giới Hương, it was approved as a US-based 501 (c) (3) nonprofit religious organization on June 13, 2011. Currently there are four Bhikkhunīs and the Venerable Abbess in residence, along with three dog disciples (Rosie, Bruno, and Rudy).

This is a Pure Land-Zen (Thiền, Chan, or meditation) nunnery following the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition for women dedicated to living the Buddha's teachings. It shares the same Dharma roots under the guidance of Late Master Venerable Bhikkhunī Hải Triều Âm at Hương Sen Temple, Đại Ninh, Lâm Đồng, Việt Nam and Hương Sen Temple, Bình Chánh, HCM City, Việt Nam.

MISSION

Hương Sen Buddhist Temple is an educational religious center for understanding Buddhism and Buddhist practices. It is built to disseminate the Respectful Honored Buddha's teachings by providing a simple quiet spacious place for residents, local as well as visiting nuns (female monastics) and devoted lay disciples to study the Buddha's discourses, research Asian (Vietnamese) culture, practice meditation, worship, chant the penitential ritual, share the Dharma, attend retreats and assemblies for the Amitābha Buddha’s name recitation and guidance for attaining the Buddha’s nature on the basis of Theravāda and Mahāyāna sūtras.

WHAT WE DO

  • We provide spiritual dialogue, counseling,teaching, and guide lay practitioners and monastics on how to observe precepts-samadhi-wisdom to maintain and develop peace, compassion, joy and happiness in themselves. 
  • We perform rituals and offer retreats tointegrate the Dhamma into life to meet the spiritual needs of disciples.
  • Weintroduce and guide the Dharma of Sakyamuni Buddha from 2,600 years ago in India to local students and Americans in thesemodern times. All people are welcome, regardless of religion or race. We do not try to convert anyone. What we do is based on your understanding, requests and support. 
  • We nurture and encourage aspiringfemale practitioners to be ordained as they wish and provide the conditions (food, shelter, scripture, robes) so they can live a liberated pure Bhikkhunī life on the basis of the Buddhist Vinaya.
  • We support and uphold the connection and growthof the international Bhikkhunī Sangha (Theravāda, Vajrayāna and Mahāyāna) inpracticing, preserving and sharing the Buddha’s teachings from different perspectives in a multicultural environment.
  • We strongly foster the development of the Bhikkhunī sangha as international Buddhist community leaders and Dharma masters.

Lịch sự kiện trong tháng

Previous YearPrevious MonthNext YearNext Month
October 2026
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the US

Thư viện tiếng Việt
Thư viện tiếng Anh

Biography of Ven. Dr. Giới Hương & Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī  Giới Hương (world name Śūnyatā Phạm) was born in 1963 in Bình Tuy, Vietnam and ordained at the age of fifteen under the great master, the Most Venerable Bhikkhunī Hải Triều Âm. In 1994, she received a Bachelor’s Degree in Literature from Sài Gòn University. She studied in India for ten years and in 2003, graduated with a PhD in Buddhist Philosophy from the University of Delhi, India. In 2005, she settled down in the United States and in 2015, she earned a second Bachelor's Degree in Literature at the University of Riverside, California.

Currently, she is pursuing a degree in the Master of Arts Program at the University of California, Riverside and works as a lecturer at the Vietnam Buddhist University in HCM City. She favors quietly reflecting on Dharma, and that leads her to write, as well as translate, Buddhist books and lyrics for music albums on her Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf. 

In 2000, she established Hương Sen Temple, Bình Chánh, Sài Gòn, Việt Nam.In 2010, she founded HươngSen Temple in Perris, California, USA, where she serves as abbess. 

BAO ANH LAC BOOKSHELF

1.1.  THE VIETNAMESE BOOKS 

1) Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa(Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2005. Tổng Hợp Tp HCMPublishing: the 2nd & 3rd reprint in2008 & 2010.

2) Ban Mai Xứ Ấn (The Dawn in India), (3 tập), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2005; Văn Hóa Sài GònPublishing: the 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2006, 2008 & 2010. 

3) Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi (Phật GiáoDeer Park–The Cradle of Buddhism), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2005. Phương ĐôngPublishing: the 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2006, 2008 & 2010.

4) Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới (Take Refuge in Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts),Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, Wisconsin, USA, 2008. Phương Đông Publishing: the 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2010, 2016 &2018. 

5) Vòng Luân Hồi (The Cycle of Life), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Phương ĐôngPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2008. Văn Hóa Sài Gòn Publishing: the 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2010, 2014 & 2016.

6) Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee (Snowflake in Milwaukee), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Văn Hoá Sài gònPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2008.

7) Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm (The Rebirthin Śūrangama Sūtra), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Văn Hóa Sài gònPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2008. Publishing Phương Đông: the 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2012, 2014 &2016. 

8) Nghi Thức Hộ Niệm, Cầu Siêu (The Ritual for the Deceased), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: Eastern Book Linkers, 2008.

9) Quan Âm Quảng Trần (The Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Tổng HợpPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2010. Publishing Phương Đông: the 2nd, 3rd, 4th & 5 reprintin 2010, 2014, 2016 & 2018. 

10) Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ (A Nun and American Inmates),Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Văn Hóa Sài gònPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2010. Hồng Đức Publishing: the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th & 6th reprintin 2011, 2014, 2016, 2018 & 2020. 

11) Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV (The Awakened Mind of the 14thDalai Lama),2 tập, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, năm 2012.The 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2010, 2016 &2018.

12) A-Hàm:Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não (Agama – A Dharma Rain transforms the Defilement),2tập, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, năm 2012. The 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2010, 2016 &2018. 

13) Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris (Collection of Sunlight in Perris), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc.2014.

14) Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang (TheKey Words ofVajracchedikā-Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, năm 2014. The 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2015, 2016 &2018. 

15) Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm(Songs and Poems of Śūraṅgama Sunlight), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc.2014.

16) Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa (Reflections at the Temple Window), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc.2018.

17) Máy Nghe MP3 Hương Sen (Hương Sen Digital Mp3 Radio Speaker): Các Bài Giảng, Sách, Bài viết và Thơ Nhạc của Thích Nữ Giới Hương (383/201 bài), Hương SenTemple.2019.

18) DVD Giới Thiệu về Chùa Hương Sen, USA (Introduction on Huong Sen Temple).Hương Sen Press Publishing.Thích Nữ Giới Hương & Phú Tôn.2019.

19) Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ (Sharing the Dharma - VietnameseBuddhist Nuns in the United States), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing.2020.

20) Tuyển Tập 40 Năm Tu Học & Hoằng Pháp của Ni sư Giới Hương (Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương),Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận,TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông, XpressPrint Publishing, USA. 2020.

21) Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở (Songs and Poems ofLotus Blooming on the Way), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing.2020

22) Nghi Thức Công Phu Khuya – Thần Chú Thủ Lăng Nghiêm (Śūraṅgama Mantra), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

23) Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Phổ Môn (The Universal Door Sūtra),Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

24) Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Dược Sư (The Medicine Buddha Sūtra),Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

25) Nghi Thức Sám Hối Hồng Danh (The Sūtraof Confession at many Buddha Titles), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

26) Nghi Thức Công Phu Chiều – Mông Sơn Thí Thực (The Ritual Donating Food to Hungry Ghosts),Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

27) Khóa Tịnh Độ – Kinh A Di Đà (The Amitabha Buddha Sūtra), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

28) Nghi Thức Cúng Linh và Cầu Siêu (The Rite for Deceased and Funeral Home), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

29) Nghi Lễ Hàng Ngày, (The Daily Chanting Ritual), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hương Sen Press, USA. 2021.

30) Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hồng Đức Publisher. 2022.
31) Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of the Winning Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022) Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, Hồng Đức Publisher. 2022.
32) Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn (Giới Hương – The Virtue Fragrance Against the Thousand Winds), Nguyên Hà.
33) Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (Buddha-avatamsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra) (2 tập).
34) Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (The Core of Buddha-avatamsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra).
35) Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành (Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision). Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương.
36) Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ (Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta)
37) Nghi cúng Giao Thừa (New Year's Eve Ceremony)
38) Nghi cúng Rằm Tháng Giêng (the Ceremony of the First Month’s Full Moon)
39) Nghi thức Lễ Phật Đản (The Buddha Birthday’s Ceremony)
40) Nghi thức Vu Lan (The Ullambana Festival or Parent Day)
41) Lễ Vía Quan Âm (The Avolokiteshvara Day)
42) Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di (The Death Anniversary of Mahapajapati Gotami)
43) Nghi thức cúng Tổ và Giác linh Sư trưởng (The Ancestor Day)

1.2.  THE ENGLISH BOOKS 

1) Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions,Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong, Delhi-7: Eastern Book Linkers, 1stprint 2004, 2ndreprint 2005 & Vietnam Buddhist University: 3rdreprint2010.

2) Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Dr. Bhikkhunī Giới Hương, Fifth Edition, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc.2018.

3) Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva,Dr. Bhikkhunī Giới Hương, Fourth Edition, Hồng ĐứcPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc.2018.

4) The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra, Thích Nữ Giới Hương,  Hồng ĐứcPublishing. 2020.

5) Sārnātha-The Cradle of Buddhism in the Archeological View. Hồng Đức Publishing. 2020.

6) Take Refuge in the Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing. 2020.

7) Cycle of Life, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng ĐứcPublishing. 2020.

8) Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương. Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận, TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông, Xpress Print Publishing, USA. 2020.

9) Sharing the Dharma -VietnameseBuddhist Nuns in the United States, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing.2020.

10) A Vietnamese Buddhist Nun and American Inmates.5th Edition. Bhikkhunī Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hương Sen Press Publishing, USA. 2021.

11)    Daily Monastic Chanting, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

12)    Weekly Buddhist Discourse Chanting, vol 1, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

13)    Practice Meditation and Pure Land, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

14)    The Ceremony for Peace, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

15)    The Lunch Offering Ritual, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

16)    The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

17)    The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

18)    The Medicine Buddha Sutra, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

19)    The New Year Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

20) The Great Parinirvana Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

21) The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

22) The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day), Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

23) The Marriage Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

24) The Blessing Ceremony for The Deceased, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

25) The Ceremony Praising Ancestral Masters, Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

26) The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

27) The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts), Bhikṣuṇī  Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen Publisher. 2023.

28) Buddhism: A Historical And Practical Vision. Edited by Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī  TN Gioi Huong. Eastern Book Linkers: Delhi 7. 2023.

29) Contribution of Buddhism For World Peace & Social Harmony. Edited by Ven. Dr. Buddha Priya Mahathero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī  TN Gioi Huong. Tôn Giáo Publishing. 2023.

30) Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy University. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī  TN Gioi Huong. Tôn Giáo Publishing. 2023.

31) Buddhism In Sri Lanka During The Period of 19th to 21st Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Colombo. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī  TN Gioi Huong. Tôn Giáo Publishing. 2023

32) Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta. Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Tôn Giáo Publishing. 2024.

1.3.  THE BILINGUAL BOOKS (VIETNAMESE-ENGLISH)

1) Bản Tin Hương Sen: Xuân, Phật Đản, Vu Lan (Hương Sen Newsletter: Spring, Buddha Birthday and Vu Lan, annual/ Mỗi Năm). 2019 & 2020.

2) Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách-Good Sentences Nurture aGood Manner, Thích Nữ Giới Hươngsưu tầm, Hồng ĐứcPublishing. 2020.

3) Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản-Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan,Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hồng ĐứcPublishing. 2020.

4) Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ-Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream, Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hồng ĐứcPublishing. 2020.

5) Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương-Words of Love and Understanding, Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hồng Đức Publishing. 2020.

6) Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái -The Ancient- Present Culture in Pilgrim,Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hồng ĐứcPublishing.2020.

7) Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống-Art of Living.Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing. 2020.

8) Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India. Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Tôn Giáo Publishing. 2024.

1.4.  THE TRANSLATED BOOKS

1) Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật(Relics of the Buddha), Tham Weng Yew, Thích Nữ Giới Hương chuyển ngữ, Delhi-7: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2005. Delhi 2006: 2nd reprint. Tổng Hợp Tp HCMPublishing: the 3rd and 4th reprintin 2008 & 2016.

2) Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù(Lotus in Prison),many authors,Thích Nữ Giới Hương translated from English into Vietnamese,Văn Hóa Sài gònPublishing: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, 2010. The 2nd, 3rd and 4th reprintin 2012, 2014 & 2016.

3) Chùa Việt Nam Hải Ngoại(Overseas Vietnamese Buddhist Temples), Võ Văn Tường & Từ Hiếu Côn, vol 2. Translated into English:Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hương Quê Publishing. 2016.

4) Việt Nam Danh Lam Cổ Tự (The Famous Ancient Buddhist Temples in Vietnam), Võ Văn Tường. Translated into English:Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Phương NamPublishing.2016.

5) Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc–(Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music),Nguyễn Hiền Đức. Translated into English:Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hồng Đức Publishing. 2020.

6) Phật Giáo-Một Bậc Đạo Sư, Nhiều Truyền Thống(Buddhism: One Teacher – Many Traditions), Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma 14th & Ni Sư Thubten Chodren, Translated into Vietnamese: Ven. Dr. Thích NữGiới Hương,Prajna Upadesa FoundationPublshing.2018.

7) Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết-Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective), Sangye Khadro, Translated into Vietnamese: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Hồng ĐứcPublishing.2020.

 

BUDDHIST MUSIC ALBUMS

  1. Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh (the Buddha Teachings Reflect in Cherry Flowers), Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Music: Nam Hưng, volume 1. 2013.

  1. Niềm Tin Tam Bảo (Trust in Three Gems), Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Music: Hoàng Y Vũ & Hoàng Quang Huế, volume 2. 2013.
  2. Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai (Whom is the Full Moon Waiting for over a Thousand Years?). Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Music: Võ Tá Hân, Hoàng Y Vũ, Khánh Hải, Khánh Hoàng, Hoàng Kim Anh, Linh Phương và Nguyễn Tuấn, volume 3. 2013.
  3. Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp (Moon Light of Dharma-Buddha). Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Music: Uy Thi Ca & Giác An, volume 4. 2013.
  4. Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Awaken Mind at the Dawn) (Piano Variations for Meditation). Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. The Solo Pianist: Linh Phương, volume 5. 2013.
  5. Tiếng Hát Già Lam (Songs from the Temple). Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Music: Nam Hưng, volume 6. 2015.
  6. Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa (The Magnificent Ancient Buddhist Temple). Poem: Thích Nữ Giới Hương. Music: Võ Tá Hân, Nam Hưng, Hoàng Quang Huế, volume 7. 2015.
  7. Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở (An Udumbara Flower is Blooming), Thích Nữ Giới Hương and Musician Nam Hưng, Hương Sen Temple. 2015.
  8. Hương Sen Ca, Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương and Music: Nam Hưng, Volume 9, Hương Sen Temple. 2018.
  9. Về Chùa Vui Tu, Poems: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Music: Nam Hưng & Nguyên Hà, Volume 10, 2018.
  10. Gọi Nắng Xuân Về (Call the Spring Sunlight), Poem: Thích Nữ Giới Hương,Music:Nam Hưng, Hương Sen Temple. Volume 11.2020.